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PAMERAN KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO DI Driwancybermuseum JANUARI 2011

Posted on January 12, 2011 | Leave a comment

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

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*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

WELCOME TO

HALL OF FAME

!!!!!forbidden to tag,pgoto or repro@copyright Dr Iwan S 2011 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!

SHOWCASE

FAMOUS LEADER COLLECTIONS :”BUNG KARNO”

The Indonesian Independence proclamator and the first indonesia president”

SHOWCASE ONE: VINTAGE BUNG KARNO BOOKS COLLECTIONS

1. CIKINI AFFAIR BOOK 1958

2. BUNG KARNO VISIT USA

3 BUNG KARNO BAPAK MARHEINIS

4.MENCAPAI INDONESIA MERDEKA

5.BUNG KARNO

6.BUNG KARNO SANG ARSITEK

7.BUNG KARNO COVER TIME

8.cover Life

SHOWCASE TWO: VINTAGE BUNG KARNO PICTURES

I. BEFORE WORLD WAR II(SBLM PD KE II)

II.DURING WW II(PERANG DUNIA KE DUA)

III. POST WW II(SESUDAH PERANG DUNIA KE II)

1. PERANG KENERDEKAAN (INDEPENDENT WAR)

2. SESUDAH PERANG KEMERDEKAAN(POST INDEPENDENT WAR)

SHOWCASE THREE: RARE VINTAGE BUNG KARNO PHILLATELIC AND NUMISMATIC COLLECTIONSCOLLECTIONS

1.PHILLATELIC

2.NUMISMATIC

SHOWCASE FOUR : THE PICTURE OF BUNG KARNO CERAMIC ARTWORK COLLECTIONS

SHOWCASE FIVE :THE PICTURE OF BUNG KARNO PAINTERS ARTWORK COLLECTIONS

SHOWCASE SIX:THE BUNG KARNO KRIS AND OTHER AMULET COLLECTIONS

Pameran Koleksi Bung KarnoPosted on November 27, 2010 by driwancybermuseum

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

tarian betawi tempo dulu

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase ameran Koleksi Bung Karno

Frame satu : Pengantar

pADA BLOG SEBELUMNYA HHTP://WWW.IWANSUWANDY.WORDPRESS TELAH DITAMPILKAN KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO DENGAN JUDUL CYBERMUSEUM BUNG KARNO,DAN SAAT INI AKAN DITAMPILAN BEBERAPA TAMBAHAN KOLESKI BUNG KARNO. SEMOGA PARA PENCINTA BUNG KARNO AKAN DAPT MENEGNANG BELIAU,PROKLAMATOR DAN PRESIDEN ri PERTAMA YANG KITA CINTAI DAN BNAGGAKAN BERSAMA

JAKARTA,NOVEMBER 2010

Dr IWAN SUWANDY

Frame dua :Koleksi Foto Bung Karno

1)Bung Karno Dengan Pimpinan Negara Sahabat

A.Mao Tse Tung

B.Presiden Ho chi Minh Vietnam

C.Presiden Tiongkok Lie Siau Chi

d.Presiden Kennedy

e.Presiden Fidel Castro

2)Bung karno dalam acara kenegaraan

(1) KONPERENSI ASIA AFRIKA BANDUNG 1955

3)Bung Karno dengan Keluarga

3)Bung Karno dengan Rakyat Indonesia

4)Foto Profile dan Jenis lain Dari Bung Karno

Frame tiga :Koleksi Buku Antik Bung Karno

The Indonesian Independence proclamator and the first indonesia president”

SHOWCASE THREE: VINTAGE BUNG KARNO BOOKS COLLECTIONS

1. CIKINI AFFAIR BOOK 1958

2. BUNG KARNO VISIT USA

3.BUKU KUNJUNGAN PRESIDEN TIONGKOK KE INDONESIA

4.Buku Kunjungan bung Karno Ke Tiongkok

4.BUNG KARNO DAN SENI

5.WAWANCARA IMAJINER DENGAN BUNG KARNO

SHOWCASE FOUR : THE PICTURE OF BUNG KARNO CERAMIC ARTWORK

COLLECTIONS

SHOWCASE FIVE :THE PICTURE OF BUNG KARNO PAINTERS ARTWORK COLLECTIONS

SHOWCASE SIX:THE BUNG KARNO KRIS AND OTHER AMULET COLLECTIONS

SHOWCASE KETUJUH (SEVEN): KOLEKSI YANG SUDAH DITAMPILKAN DALAM WEB BLOG hhtp://www.iwansuwandy.wordpress.com

KATA PENGANTAR

Saya memberanikan diri membangun sebuah museum dunia maya atau cybermusuem KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO khusus untuk seluruh rakyat Indonesia dan pecinta Bung Karno dimanapun ia berada , dengan penuh kesadaran atas keterbatasan saya yang hanya seorang pensiunan dokter, petualang dan kolektor benda unik serta informasi terkait lainnya yang tentunya bukan pakar dan ahli dibidang museum dunia maya , tetapi berandalkan tekad yang bulat dan pengalaman sebagai kolektor senior yang banyak membaca literatur terkait bidangnya menyusun tulisan dan illustrasi ini berdasarkan koleksi yang sudah dihimpun hampir lima puluh tahun dengan maksud dan tujuan agar informasi tentang koleksi Bung karno pribadi dan koleksi unik terkait Bung Karno dapat di ketahui oleh rakyat Indonesia terutama generasi penerus secara gratis, oleh karena itu saya perlu dukungan moriel ( semangat) dan matriel (dana operasional untuk consultan profesional) , maka besar harapan saya seluruh kolektor Indonesia untuk mendukung proposal musuem dunia maya ini liwat komentar, dan dukungan sponsor dari pencinta Bung Karno seperti yaysan BK, Metro Tv , Penerbit PT Gramedia dan sebagainya.karena informasi yang ada saat saya eksplorasi dengan google di Internet masih sangat terbatas.

Saya sadar cybermuseum ini dibuat dengan pengantar bahasa Indonesia karena sesuai arahan proklamator dan presiden Republik Indonesia pertama yang lebih senang di sebut sebagai Bung Karno agar kita harus berdikari dan bangga dengan bangsa kita sendiri yang termasuk bangsa besar yang jumlah penduduknya nomor tiga didunia setelah Tiongkok dan India. Pecinta Bung Karno dari bangsa asing sepantasnya mengenal bahasa Indonesia agar dapat meresapi tulisan ini karena banyak istilah yang sangat sulit untuk diterjemahkan kebahasa asing seperti Inggris, Jerman, spanyol atau Belanda, untuk itu penulis memohon maaf yang sebasar-besarnya,juga atas kekeliruan dan kekurangan yang masih ada dalam tulisan ini, masukan sangat diperlukan agar tulisan elektronik ini dpat disempurnakan pada edisi mendatang.lihatlah poster Bung Karno yang sangat kharismatik INGAT!!*001

*001

Tidak lupa penulis mengucapkan terimakasih kepada seluruh teman-teman yang tidak dapat dituliskan namanya satu persatu ,terutama Pak Herry Hutabarat, Pak Sofyan lampung,almarhum guru saya Frater Servaas dan almarhum Prof.Suparlan yang telah memberikan masukan ide untuk mengumpulkan koleksi serta informasi yang unik dan langka bagi generasi penerus.terimakasih juga kepada Pak Ali Baswedan yang telah menyokong terbitnya buku elektronik ini dan berkean memberikan tambahan informasi untuk Bab khusus tambahan KOLEKSI PUSAKA BUNG KARNO

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KOMENTAR ALI BASWEDAN DALAM BLOG iwansuwandy.wordpress.com

Gagasan e-book tentang Bung Karno harus dilanjutkan. Sebab upaya Bapak itu bagian dari mencerdaskan bangsa. Selain itu, memperkaya khasanah tentang Bung Karno. Apa yang salah?
Kalau boleh saya urun rembuk, tentang BAB KOLEKSI PRIBADI BUNG KARNO, perlu ditambahkan KOLEKSI BENDA PUSAKA tokoh Proklamator itu. Ini bukan persoalan mistik. Benda-benda pusaka itu bagian dari sejarah panjang bangsa kita. Misalnya, Bung Karno pernah menerima pusaka Kanjeng Kiai Lepet dari PB X, berupa pedang yang dibuat pada masa pemerintahan PB IV. Benda-benda pusaka yang dimiliki Bung Karno pernah dimuat secara detail di Majalah KERIS, no: 1, tahun I, 15 feb – 16 Maret 2007. Dengan ikhlas saya bersedia memberikan copy majalah itu (berupa PDF) kalau berkenan.

Ali Baswedan

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dukungan komentar diatas memberikan info bahwa pedang pusaka yang selalyu dibawa Bung Karno dibuat pada masa Pakubuwono IV, cerita lengkap akan di tampilkan setelah Pak Baswedan mengirmkan copy majalalah tersebut. saya memiliki foto pedang pusaka tersebut *003 dan *004

*003 *004.

Saya sangat gembira atas sokongan para kolektor Indonesia lainnya, lihat facebook saya iwansuwandy untuk tambahan informasi baru dan sokongan anda semua* 005

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*5 CUPLIKAN DARI FACE BOOK

video dari Yayasan Bung Karno tetang pertemuan Bung Karno dengan Nehru India dan Nasser Mesir, saya sedang meminta sponsorship dan izin memanfaatkan buku terbitan Yayasan Bung Karno lama era Guntur sukarno

Soekarno – My Spirit

Pas kebetulan lagi bongkar-bongkar file di PC, ketemu slide show ini. Daripada dibuang lebih baik ditaruh di FB. Mudah-mudahan bermanfaat.

Length:4:04

Remove

Iwan Suwandy thanks for support me to writte e-book of Bung Karno Collection in Indonesia language Koleksi Bung Karno, I need million support .

ASIA uniquecollection discussion Group

bung karno poster collection during PEMILU,MORE INFO CLICK MY INTERENET BLOG iwansuwand.wordpress.com

By:Iwan Suwandy

agar saya segera dapat mengirimkan surat resmi kepada Ketua Yayasan Bung Karno untuk memeperoleh izi memanfaatkan informasi mereka dalam MUSEUM DUNIAMAYA KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO ini, dan apabila ada sponsor mungkin saya akan mengubah dari Premium E-BOOK menjadi Free CYBER MUSEUM , silahkan kirim komentar sokongan terhadap gagasan ini liwat blog internet dan facebook saya dengan nama yang sama iwansuwandy.

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SETELAH MENKOMPILASI SELURUH INFORMASI KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO YANG ADA, TERNYATA JUMLAHNYA SANGAT BANYAK, SEHINGGA PERLU DIBUAT SUATU BLOG TERSENDIRI DENGAN NAMA BUNGKARNO-IWAN.WORDPRESS.COM, JUDULNYA AKAN DITETAPKAN OLEH TIM DAN Dr IWAN S, TENTUNYA BILA ADA SPONSOR UNTUK BIAYA OPERASIONAL,PARA SPONSOR HARAP MENGHUBUNGI SAYA LIWAT COMMENT DAN EDITOR BLOG INI AKAN MENGHUBUNGI PARA SPONSOR UNTUK KEPERLUAN ADMINISTRATIF LEBIH LANJUT,BERITA LIHAT RUBRIK TERSENDIRI TENTANG DUKUNGAN DAN SPONSOR KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO. APABILA TIDAK ADA SPONSOR TERPAKSA INFORMASI DAN ILLUSTRASI DIBATASI SEBAGAI BAGIAN DARI PROPOSAL INI.hARAP PARA TEMAN-TEMAN KOLEKTOR MAKLUM ATAS KETERBATASAN SAYA YANG BEKERJA SEORANG DIRI DAN KURANG PROFESIONAL.

Selanjutnya bacalah Catatan saya tentang pribadi Bung Karno dan Koleksi pribadi Bung Karno sebagai Pengantar buku elektronik yang saat ini telah saya tingkatkan jadi MUSEUM DUNIAMAYA CYBERMUSEUM KOLSI BUNG KARNO karena sangat banyak dukungan dan klik.dari pecinta Bung Karno.

Para teman-teman yang ingin melihat kolesi pribadi Dr Iwan yang terkait Bung Karno, silahkan melihat di msueum dunia Maya Dr Iwan , klik hhtp//www.Driwancbermuseum.wordpress.com. terima kasih atas perhatiannya.

Jakarta ,Juli 2010

Dr IWAN S

PS Apabila sudah banyak komentar dukungan dan ada sponsor yang lambangnya akan di catumkan dalam proposal ini, maka secara bertahap daftar koleksi dan illustrasi akan diinstall dalam proposal buku elektr0nik ini,oleh karena itu kirimkan segera dukungan dan sponsor anda liwat komentar di Blog ini dan Facebook saya. terima kasih atas dukungan dan sponsorshipnya.

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CATATAN Dr IWAN S TENTANG KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO

1. Kesan-Kesan Dr IWAN S TENTANG BUNG KARNO

saya dilahirkan dan dibesarkan di Tanah Minangkabau sumatera Tengah dulunya sekarang Sumatera barat, sehingga tokoh proklamator yang lebih dikenal adalah Bung Hatta,lihat foto kunjungan Bung Hatta ke Padang tahun 1977 dismabut gubernur SUMBAR Haroen Zein dan Walikotanya Achiroel Yahya *005a foto ini karya Indra Sanusi dan sudah diberikan izin pengunaannya.

*005a

. Bung Karno pertama kali saya lihat tahun 1955 saat berkampanye dilapangan Tugu didepan SMA Don Bosco, saat ini didepan Pengadilan negeri Padang yang sekarang sudah dibangun Museum Kota Padang, beliau berada diatas panggung tenda terpal persis saat itu saya sekolah di SD Andreas yang lokasinya disamping SMA Don Bosco ,kelas lima SD, kami beramai-ramai murid SD melihat Bung Karno pidoto, beliau sangat pandai mempengaruhi semangat pendengar dengan jel jel Merdeka nya,sekali Merdeka Tetap merdeka tetapi apa yang dikatan beliau pupus dari ingatan saya.Saya telah banyak membaca literatur terkait beliau,sehingga saya mengerti bagaimana besarnya cinta Bung karno terhadap seni,sehingga beliau sering bertemu dengan seniman seperti seniman pelukis seperti Affandi, Basuki Abdullah,Dezentje,Le Man Fong,Henk Ngantung,Hendra Gunawan dan Sudjono, malah Henk Ngantung dipercayai menjadi Gubernur DKI tahun 1964*005aa

*005aa henk dan lukisannya pasar Jakarta.

, sayang beberapa dari pelukis tersebut ikut lembaga kesenian PKI(LEKRA) sehingga hidup mereka sangat sengsara pada masa orde baru( Saya juga mengumpulkan koleksi masa Pak Harto,nanti kan saya tulis buku elektronik pada saat yang tepat).profil para pelukis senior tersebut umumnya saya kenal setelah melihat beberapa foto Bung Karno dengan mereka di istana Merdeka saat menyusun koleksi istana tersebut, juga difoto rumah Bung Karno pertama di jalan Pegangsaan didalam rumah tahun 1945 saat wawancara dengan wartawan terlihat lukisan Basuki Abdullah pantai Ternate berdasar lukisan cair air Bung Karno didinding dan disampingnya dipajang lukisan Fatmawati yang juga dilukis Basuki Abdullah yang sudah ada sejak masa revolusi kemerdekaan *002

*002

Saya masih menyimpan tulisan Bung Karno tahun 1942 saat tentara Dai nippon baru membebaskan beliau dari Bengkulu ke Sumatera Barat dalam bentuk kliping,tidak jelas dari majalah mana, selain itu juga teman saya memberikan sebuah cetakan surat pribadi Bung Karno kepada para prajurit yang bertugas diperbatasan saat Konfrontasi Malaysia saat Hari raya Lebaran yang menurut informasi surat itu berada dalam bingkisan dari Bung Karno kepada prajurit tersbut,sungguh besar perhatian beliu kepada para para prajurit pejuang, pada saat masa perang kemerdekaan pernah ditenirt almanak dengan gambar bungakarno tahun 1946 dengan berbagai promosi perjuangan yang saat itu sangat riskan untuk memilikinya karena dapat ditangkap Belanda ,sungguh istimewa saya memiliki koleksi almanak perjuangan tersebut, juga kartupos peringatan satu tahun medreda 17 agustus 1946 *002asayang tidak memakai gambar profile Bung Karno tetapi merupakan temuan saya yang sangat spektakuler,begitu juga dengan berbagai koleksi lain yang dapat dilihat dan dibaca pada bab berikutnya.

*002a

Pada saat Sumatera Barat bergolak terhadap pemrintahan Pusat tahun 1957, istilah versi dari PRRI yang dipimhan Ahmad Husein dan Sjaruddin Prawira Negara (koleksi pribadi saya tentang PRRI akan diteritkan pada masa mendatang) dan versi Pusat disebut pembrontak, Bung Karno pamornya sangat menurun dimata Rakyat Sumatera Barat, sehingga banyak arsip beliau dimusnahkan, tetapi sebagian telah saya selamatkan dan tersimpan rapi saat ini, apalagi ketika terjadinya peristiwa G30PKI 1965, masih terbayang saat Pak Harto Mengambil alih kekuasan dan saat beliau dilantik *002b dengan pidato yang sangat sederhana yang berbeda dengan pidato Bung Karno yang lebih kharismatik.

Saya melihat Bung Karno kedua kalinya dan terakhir pada saat beliau berpidato dalam upacara pembukaan Pekan Olah Raga Nasional(PON) di Bandung tahun 1961, saya peserta PON cabang Tennis Lapangan, beliau sangat kharismatik, saya masih ingat sebelum mulai berpidato, Bung Karno meminta peserta dan penonton agar diam, beliau berkata Saya minta supaya Diam sebelum saya mengucapkan kata pembukaan, kemudian beliu menghardik dengan suara mengeleganr sebanyak lima kali DIAM!!! DIAM!!!DIAM!!! DAIM!!!DIAM!!! saya sungguh terpeosna akhirnya semuanya diam, tapi saya lupa apa yang beliau katakan, karena itu saya berusaha memiliki koleksi buku pidato Bung Karno,dan yang paling langka adalah terbitan tahun 1954 tentan Pindato-pidato Bung Karno dari 17 agustus 1945 sampai 17 agust 1954, banyak dari pidato tersebut tidak pernah diterbitkan,mungkin atas alasan politik, juga kata sambutan Bung Karno pada saat peringatan enam bulan Merdeka dalam Buku khusus terbiitan Harian Merdeka dengan judul Merdeka dengan illustrasi sampul depan KEPALAN BERWARNA MERAH DENGAN TULISAN MERDEKA*002c

buku ini sangat historik dan langka. Tahun 2009 saya kembali menemukan buku langka yang berhubungan dengan pidato Bung Karno saat har Kemerdekaan RI dari proklamasi 1945 sampai 1954 oleh Kementerian Penerangan RI bagian dokumentasi dengan judul 8 x 17 Agustus, karena dalam Bunku Bung Karno Dibawah Bendera Revolusi jilid kedua tidak dicantumkan pidato Bung Karno saat proklamsi kemerdekaan tujuh belas Agustus 1945, apa sebabnya slah dikomentari didalam hati pembaca sendiri karena dapat menimb ulkan polemik dan diskusi yang tidak akan selesai, ini adalah fakta sejarah , yah diendapkan saja dalam memori anda, silahkan baca bersama dengan bab buku Dibawah Bendera Revolusi Jilid kedua .

Saya hanya menyampaikan kesan yang sebenarnya berada dalam pikiran saya, tentanh hal lain sebaiknya saya tanpa komentar karena berbagai alasan, tetapi yang pasi bilau adalah proklamator,bapak bangsa yang sangat kharismatik,energik, dan memiliki koleksi Bung Karno merupakan suatu Kebanggaan tersendiri,saya usulkan Yayasan Bung Karno mendirikan suatu museum yang megah untuk peringatan bagi Bung Karno dan saya bersedia menyumbangkan seluruh koleksi saya kepada museum tersebut ,tentunya harus berisi lengka[p baik sisi terang maupun gelap dari Beliau,kita menyadari mana ada manusia yang sempurna,tetapi yang jelas beliau telah memerdekakan Bangsa Indonesian yang sama-sama kita cintai.

2.KOLEKSI PRIBADI BUNG KARNO

Koleksi Pribadi Bung Karno tentunya masih berada pada Yayasan Bung Karno yang tahun 1979 dengan ketua putra pertama Bung Karno ,Guntur Sukarno, lihat illustrasi Kata Pengantar Ketua Yayasan Bung Karno PADA BUKU BUNG KARNO & SENI edisi pertama,terbitan Yayasan Bung Karno,Jakarta 1979,semoga yaysan tersebut tidak keberatan ditampilkan dalam buku elektronik ini.sebelumnya terimakasih Bung Guntur.(apabila sesudah satu bulan info ini ditayangkan tidak ada tegoran,maka illustrasi akan ditampilkan). Apabila ada izin,mungkin sebagian foto yang di close up dengan ukuran lebih kuang 30% aslinya akan ditampilkan juga. Apabila tidak diizinkan terpaksa anggota melihatnya langsung pada buku aslinya atau dapat melihat diperpustakaan club.

Dalam buku aslinya berisi Prawacana Penyusun Soedarmadji J.H. Damais dan para penulis Sitor Situmorang,Wiyoso Yudoseputro dan sudarmadji.Samburtan Ketua Yayasan Bung Karno Guntur Sukarno,Sambutan Ketua Dewan Kesenian Jakarta Ajip Rosidi,Kata sambutan wakil PresideRepublik Indonesia Adam Malik,Kata Sambutan Menteri Kesejahteraan Rakyat Republik Indonesia Surono , Kata sambutan Kepala daerak Khusus Ibukota Jakarta Tjokropranolo, Bung Karno Dan Seniman olh Sitor Situmorang, Bung Karno Dengan seni Oleh Wiyoso Yudoseputro, Bung Karno Dengan Seni Rupa Oleh Sudarmaji, Daftar Benda Benda Pameran, Kepustakaan Pilihan , Ucapan terima Kasih.

Dalam era ketua Yayasan Bung Karno Bapak Guruh Sukarno Putra, ada sebuah video koleksi foto Bung karno yang sangat penting dilestarikan, beberapa foto tersebut ada dalam koleksi saya pribadi seperti foto kunjungan Bung Karno ke Amerika serikat.*002d bung Karno dan Guntur di Dyasney land naik kereta.

*002d

Saya sangat berharap agar koleksi yayasan Bung Karno ini dapat dizinkan untuk di tampilkan dalam buku elektronik ini dan mungkin nantinya berkemband menjadi suatu blog tersendiri dengan nama museum duniamaya koleksi Bung Karno dan juga dalam bahasa inggris CYBER MUSEUM BUNG KARNO’S COLLECTIONS , saya telah meng add video koleksi foto Bung Karno era Bapak Guruh , karena tidak dicantumkan hak cipta ,mohon maaf jika yayasan BK tidak berkenan, maka video tersebut dengan segera saya hapus, sebagai bahan pertimbangan Bung Karno tidak hanya milik yayasan Bung Karno dan keluarga Besar tetapi milik seluruh bangsa Indonesia dan dunia jadi termasuk barang pusaka dunia atau World Heritage jadi tidak dapat dijadikan Hak Cipta seseorang atau kelompok, saya saran UNESCO juga berkenan menjadi sponsor dalam melestarikan warisan Budaya Bangsa dunia ini.

3. KOLEKSI PUSAKA BUNG KARNO

1)Koleksi benda-benda Pusaka milik Bung karno, berdsarakan majalah lama milik teman saya bapak Ali Baswedan yang disumbangkan secara gratis untuk dimuat dalam buku elektronik KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO*TP-001.(sampai saat ini belum dikirimkan via e-mail dr Iwan s)

2) Photo Keris pusaka Bung Karno: a)*ill KP-002 pada masa perang Kemerdekaan Ri 1945-1950 ternyata berbentuk Keris.(dimana benda ini berada sekarang?)

*KP002

dan b)* ill TP-003 beberapa foto Tongkat pusaka Bung Karno pada masa Orde Lama 1951-1965, apabila diperhatikan dengan saksama ternyata ada dua jenis

Dimanakah benda pusaka keris dan kedua jenis tongkat pusaka Bung KARNO tersebut diatas? perlu diteliti lebih lanjut yang merupakan PR Yayasan Bung Karno atau para pakar sejarah Indonesia dan ini merupakan informasi pertama di dunia maya berdasarkan fot0 asli BUNG KASRNO yang diclose up , bagaimana manakjubkan bukan !!!!!

4.. KOLEKSI PRIBADI Dr IWAN S TERKAIT BUNG KARNO

Secara kronologis akan saya informasikan perkembangan koleksi pribadi saya terkait bung Karno, tulisan ini akan saya tampilan secara bertahap disertai ilkustrasi, satu persatu menunggu komentar baik dari yaysan Bung Karno,keluarga besar mantan Presiden RI Ibu Megawati Sukarno Putri dan keluarga besar Bung Karno,serta para kolektor pencinta Bung Karno, harap setiap inifo dibaca dan dilihat dengan saksama,bila tidak berkenan harap kirim komentar via comment dan bila disetujui akan saya hapus dari tayangan, saya sadar berbicara teng Bapak bangsa dan Proklamator itu sangat peka, makanya saya sang hati-hati, mohon komentar dan koreksi apakah buku elektronok ini perlu diteruskan atau dihentikan,saya sangat menunggu komentar, bila tidak segera saya hilangkan dari tayangan,bila ya mari sokong saya dengan komentar anda.terima kasih.Saya belum pernah lihat tayangan pribadi seperti ini di dalam maupun luar negeri. ok segara kirim komentar.

BAB SATU : KOLEKSI PRIBADI MILIK BUNG KARNO(YAYASAN BUNG KARNO DAN KELUARGA BESAR BUNG KARNO dalam buku BUNG KARNO DAN SENI TERBITAN PERTAMA YAYASAN BUNGKARNO KETUA GNTUR SUKARNO TAHUN 1979 ( dengan izin dari pemilik-masih menunggu perseutjuan, e-mail sudah dikirimkan belum ada jawaban sampai saat ini)

I. KOLEKSI SENILUKIS,PATUNG DAN KERAMIK

II.KOLEKSI SENI BATIK,UKIR DAN WAYANG

III. KOLEKSI SENI BANGUNAN,MONUMEN DAN TATA KOTA

BAB DUA KOLEKSI PRIBADI Dr IWAN S TERKAIT DENGAN BUNG KARNO

I.KOLEKSI BUKU DAN DOKUMEN BUNG KARNO (KOLEKSI PRIBADI Dr IWAN S)

1 MASA SEBELUM PERANG DUNIA KEDUA

1).BUKU KARANGAN BUNG KARNO DIBAWAH BENDERA REVOLUSI JILID I TAHUN 1961 , YANG BEBERAPA ILLUSTRASI DAPT DILIHAT DIBAWAH INI

*BR1-001 KULIT DEPAN

*BR1-001

*BR1-002 gambar asli dalam buku Dibawah Bendera Revolusi jidid satu halaman depan,bila diperhatikan close upnya dengan saksama ternyata Bung Karno memiliki tahi lalat diaats bibir kiri,pantas jago sebagai orator.foto ini dibuat saatBung Karno lulus sekolah HBS.

*BR1-002

2. MASA PENDUDUKAN JEPANG 1942-1945

1)KLIPING TULISAN BUNG KARNO SAAT DIBEBASKAN TENTARA PENDUDUKAN JEPANG DARI BENGKULU KE SUAMTERA BARAT

2) MAJALLAH PANDJI POESTAKA, nO. 19 , TERBITAN KOKOEMIN TOSJOKJOKOE (PENERBITAN NASIONAL) BALAI POESTAKA JAKARTA,15 AGOESTOES 2602(1942) TAHOEN XX HAL 652-653.

hal 652 JUDUL RUBRIK PERAJAAN MIRADJ isinya antara lain :

” Malam minggoe jl mesdjid Kwitang penoeh dengan oemat Islam yang ingin toeroet merajakan hari Mi’radj Nabi Besar kita Moehammad s.a.w. dari kalangan oelama ada terdengar chotbah yang berharga malam itu. Poen Ir Sukarno ada djoega hadir pada malam itoe dan toroet memberikan pemandangan.”

hal 653 berisi berita : “Komite perajaan itoe (Mi’rajd ) serta Pergerakan Tiga A tjabang Djakarta. Foto Oemat berdoejoen-doejoen membandjiri Keboen Binatang terlihat didepan rombongan Bung Karno * 005

dan foto Ir soekarno lagi berchotbah dengan penoeh semangat dalam perajaan Mi’radj di Keboen Binatang*006

*005

*006

(Kebun binatang yang dimaksud adalah kebun binatang yang didirikan oleh pelukis Raden Saleh dibelakang Rumah Pribadinya-saat ini jadi rumah sakit Cikini dan kebun binatang berada dijalan Cikini Raya Jakarta Pusat, saat ini sudah dipindahkan keluar kota Pasar Minggu dan di tempat tersebut didirikan Taman Ismael Marzuki.-Dr Iwan )

3) FOTO ANGGOTA CHUO SANGI IN BADAN PERTIMBANGAN CIPTAAN PEMERINTAHAN PENDUDUKAN JEPANG , ADA DUA KOLEKSI PERTAMA DARI MASA PENDUDUKAN JEPANG *DN001 DAN DARI BUKU KARANGAN IBU FATMAWATI Bung karno diurutan sudak kanan bawah dna diatas foto ayahnay presiden Abdul Rahman Wahid, Wahid Hasyim.*DN002

*DN001

*DN002

4)FOTO BUNG KARNO DENGAN JENDRAL TOYO DI JEPANG *DN OO3 (Kejujuran Saudara Tua,majalah Tempo,13 Desember 1986,hal 20)

*DN003

5) INFORMASI PERTEMUAN BUNG KARNO DENGAN MAHASISWA SOEJATMIKO,SOEDARPO DAN SOEBADIO DIRUMAH BELIAU PADA TAHUN 1943TANPA ILLUSTRASI *DN004( Soedjatmiko,Pilihan Dan peluang revolusi Indonesia setelah 45 tahun .Beberapa refleksi pribadi,Sejarah Pemikiran,Rekonstruki ,Persepsi no 1. MSI & GRamedia Pustaka Umum Jakarta 1991)

6) foto Bung Karno Ikut latihan Militer Tentara Pendudukan Jepang dalam majallah bahasa Belanda ( Mr Mas slamet,Japamsche Intrigues,Buijten $Schipperhijn,Amsterdam,26 januari 1946,ex perpustakaan Biara Padua Tjitjurug,saat ini koleksi pribadi Dr IWAN S):

(1) foto illustrasi buku halaman 9, Bung Karno belajar hormat senjata kepada prajurit Dai Nippon *DN005

*DN005

(2) Foto illustrasi buku halaman 10, BungKarno belajar menembaksenapan karaben kepada tenetara Dai Nippon*DN006

*DN006

7) foto klipping karangan Bung Karno Judul Djawa Senotai! *o12 dan foto lain dalam buku fatmawati anatara lain Foto Bung Karno berpidato di Gang Kenari Djakarta *DN008 , Foto Bung Karno dan pemimpin pemerinatahan pendudukan Jepang Gunseikan *DN009, Bung Karno dan romusha *DN0010, Foto Bung Karno dan Ibu Fatmawati ketika lagu Indonesia Raya dinyanyikan dalam sebuah pertunjukan sandiwara “Fadjar Telah Menjinsing” dalam rangka memperinagti berdirinya Perserikatan Oesaha Sandiweara Jawa*DN 011,Foto Bung Karno Menyambut adanya Janji kemerdekaan dikemudian hari bersama pemuda-pemudi Djakarta *DN012, foto surat kabar Asia Raya mengenai Indonesia Merdeka ,Kemerdekaan kemoedian didjanjikan Dai Nippon Taikoku*DN013, dan Foto Ibu Fatmawati menjahit bendera pusaka Merah Putih *DN014 ,Foto Bung Karno memimpin kerja bakti bersama para Romusha didaerah banten *DN015 ( buku Bunga rampai ?Karangan Ibu Fatmawati,kulit buku sudah hilang sehingga info tak lengkap)

8)Dokumen asli Anggota Tjoeoe Sangi -In 2603(1943)*DN TSI001 dan oo2

*DNTSI

(1) lembar pertama foto Bung Karno sebagai Ketua *DN 016 dibagian tengah

*DN016

dan 20 foto anggota di pingir dokumen *020 dan Dr Boentara *DN017 serta dua puluh anggota (nomor 21 -40) *DN018, serta tokoh terkenal BUng Hatta sebagai anggota no tiga puluh * DN019, Oto Iskandar Dinata no tiga delapan*020, Profesor Hoesaein Djajadiningrat no anggota tiga *021 dan Wachid Hasyim (ayah alm Gus Dur) anggota nomor enam belas *022

(2) lembaran kedua foto dua orang wakil Ketua KOesoemo Oetojo *DN023

(3) VIDEO EIGAKU KAISHA, SIDANG TJUA SIANGI-IN KE IV. *DN 024 SAMPAI DN 034

3. MASA PERANG KEMERDEKAAN 1945-1950

1) Pidato Presiden Soekarno Dalam mengumumkan Proklamasi Kemerdekaan Indonesia Pada Tanggal 17 Agustus 1945 (8X17 Agustus,bag.dokumentasi,Kementrian Penerangan RI,Jakarta,Stensilan Asli,1954), bukuDBR jilid dua tidak dicantumkan.Sesuai dengan ejaan aslinya : Saudara-saudara sekalian! Saja telah minta saudara-saudara hadir disini untuk menjaksikan satu peristiwa maha-penting dalam sedjarah kita. Berpuluh-puluh tahun kita bangsa Indonesia telah berdjoang,untuk kemerdekaan tanah air kita.Bahkan telah beratus-ratus tahun! Gelombangnja aksi kita untuk mentjapai kemerdekaan kita itu ada naiknja dan ada turunnja,tetapi djiwa jita tetap menudju kearah tjita-tjita. Djuga didalam djaman Djepang,usaha kita untuk mentjapai kemerdekaan-nasional tidak berhenti-berhenti. Di dalam djaman Djepang ini,tampaknja sadja kita menjandarkan diri kepada mereka.Tetapi pada hakekatnja , tetap kita menjusun tenaga kita sendiri,tetap kita pertjaja kepada kekuatan sendiri. Sekarang tibalah saatnj kita benar-benar mengambil nasib bangsa dan nasib tanah air kita didalam tangan kita sendiri.Hanja bangsa jang berani mengambil nasib dalam tangan sendiri,akan dapat berdiri dengan kuatnja. Maka kami,tadi malam telah mengadakan musjawarat dengan pemuka-pemuka rakjat Indonesia, dari seluruh Indonesia. Permusjawaratan itu seia-sekata berpendapat,bahwa sekaranglah datang saatnja untuk menjatakan kemerdekaan kita. Saudara-saudara! Dengan ini kami menjatakan kebulatan tekad itu.Dengarkanlah proklamasi kami : PROKLAMASI. Kami bangsa Indonesia dengan ini menjatakan KEMERDEKAAN INDONESIA. Hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekuasaan dan lain-lain, diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja. Djakarta ,17 Agustus 05 ,Atas nama bangsa Indonesia SOEKARNO-HATTA. Demikianlah,saudara-saudara! Kita sekarang telah merdeka! Tidak ada satu ikatan lagi jang mengikat tanah air kita dan bangsa kita! Mulai saat ini kita menjusun Negara kita! Negara Merdeka, Negara Republik Indonesia- merdeka kekal dan abadi.Insja Allah,Tuhan memberkati kemerdekaan kita itu!

( Pidato ini diketik tanpa spasi sesuai kalimat aslinya, agar tidak ditambah atau dikurangi dari aslinya-Dr Iwan S)

2) KOLEKSI NOMOR PERINGATAN ENAM BULAN MERDEKA TERBITAN HARIAN MERDEKA 17.2.1946

3) KOLEKDI MAJALAH NOMOR KHUSUS PERINGATAN SETAHOEN REPOEBLIK INDONESIA 17.8 .1946ITERNITKAN BADAN PENERBIT NASIONAL.

*ILLUSTRASI KULIT DEPAN GAMBAR GUNUNG KARANG DENGAN OBAK BEWARNA MERAH PUTIH DENGAN MOTTO MERDEKA SAMPAI AKHIR ZAMAN.

ISI YANG TERKAIT BUNG KARNO

(1) REPRO SURAT KABAR SOEARA ASIA TENTANG PROKLAMSI INDONESIA MERDEKA De ngan narasi : MAKA TERSIARLAH PROKLAMASI INDONESIA MERDEKA -dalam soesana tekanan militer Djepang- diseloeroeh Tanah Air, bahkan diseloeroeh doenia melaloei lima boeawana dan empat samoedra.

(2)tulisan PRESIDENT KITA ,DILENGKAPI DENGAN ILLUSTRASI FOTO presiden soekarno

(3) tulisan hal -11 judul ” MENOEDJOE KE PARLEMEN SEMPOERNA,’ dengan illustrasi foto bung karno dengan kabninet soekarno sebelah kiri dan kabinet Sjahrir sebelah kanan(baca tulisan prof soedjatmiko tentsang kolaburator Jepang dibaba masa pendudukan Jepang sbelum ini-pen) dengan narasi dibawah foto : PADA TABNGGAL 23 NOVEMBER 1945 KABINET SOEKARNO(KIRI) MENYERAHKAN KEKUASAAN KEPADA (KANAN) KABINET SJAHRIR , bung karno berada ditengah.

(4) hal 64 illustrasi foto Buung Karno,Bung Hatta dan Jendral Sudirman men injau Kapal perang Angkstsn Laut NRI, narasi :” ANGKATAN LAOET REPUBLIK INDONESIA MENDJAMIN KESELAMATAN NEGARA,NOEASA DAN BANGSA”

4)KOLEKSI MINGGOAN UMUM ”SOEARA MOEDA’ NOMOR 63/64 27.8.1946

JUDUL. KENANGAN 1 TAHOEN MERDEKA

*ill.Bung Karno dan Pangeran Diponegoro

POEDJA

P.DIPONEGORO DAN BOENG KARNO , KEODA2NJA PAHLAWAN KEMERDEKAAN. BEDANJA HANJA, JG SEORANG TELAH MENGHADAP TOEHAN,JG. SEORANG MASIH BERDJIWA. KEPADA JG TELAH PERGI KAMI DO’AKAN MENDAPAT TEMPAT BAIK DIHADLIRAT TOEHAN DAN JG MASIH HIDOEP SEMOGA SENATIASA DILINDOENGINJA DLM PERDJOEANGAN MEMIMPIN REVOLUSI INI.KITA PERTJAJA BAHWA PERDJOEANGAN KITA AKAN BERHATSIL SEBAGAI HARAPAN KITA : TETAP MERDEKA.

5) 28 JULI 1947

PADA HARI INI DITERBITKAN UANG REVOLUSI nri : GAMBAR BUNG KARNO NOMINAL SERATUS RUPIAH, TANDA PEMBAJARAN JANG SAH,NOMOR SERI SDA 1 DITANDA TANGANI MEN

4. MASA ORDE LAMA 1951-1965

1)BUKU KUNJUNGAN PRESIDEN TIONGKOK LIE SHOU CHI KE INDONESIA DENGAN FOTO KULIT DEPAN BUNG KARNO DAN PRESIDEN TIONGKOK TERSEBUT DIATAS MOBIL BUNG KARNO RI 1

3.BUKU TERBITAN KEMENTERIAN PENERANGAN TAHUN 1958 BERJUDUL Beberapa fikiran dan pandangan UA PEDJUANG NASIONAL INDONESIA-YUGOSLAVIA Josip Broz-Tito -Dr I r Hadji Soekarno, Pertjetakan Negara-Djakrta-443/B-1958. Buyku ini dengan gambar kulit depan kedua pejuang Nasional tersebut.

4.Buku terbitan Kedutaan Amerika Serikat Jakarta ,judul Foto=foto dan Reportase tentang Perjalanan PRESIDEN SOEKARNO DI AMERIKA SERIKAT, FOTO KULIST DEPAN Bung Karno yang memegang tongkat pusakanya dan Guntur Sukarno didepan patung Abrahan Lincoln di tugu Lincoln Memorial ,Washington .D.C. dan gambar halaman belakang di Pennsylvania Avenue di Washington ,sebuah panggung didirikan untuk menyambut kedatangan Presiden Soekarno setinggi kira-kira 10 meter,didampinggi oleh bendera-bendera Indonesia dan Amerika setinggi 10 meter. Dia ats panggung ini kepada Presiden Soekarno diserahkan Kunci Kota , ialah sebagai pernyataan selamat datang.

Buku brosur ini siterbitkan untuk memringati kunjungan Presiden Soekarno ke Amerika Serikat yang telah menimbulkan pengartian yang lebih baik dari tanggal 16 Mei – 3 Juni 1956.

Buku brosur ini sangat menarik karena dilengkapi dengan gambar peta perjalanan bung Karno, dan illustrasi foto hitam putih dan berwarna sebanyak delan puluh satu gambar ilustrasi buku , dan pada kulit belakang bagian dlam tertulis ucapan bung karno dengan foto Bung Karnoi melambaikan tanggan :

‘…. DAN SEKARANG, TUAN RUMAH BANGSA AMERIKA, KAWAN2 SAJA DI AMERIKA , SAJA AKAN MENGUTJAPKAN SELAMAT TINGGAL KEPADA SUADARA2. PERHUBUNGAN KITA SEKARANG TELAH MENDJADI LEBIH ERAT DAN MARILAH KITA BERTEKAD AGAR PERBUHUNGAN ITU TETAP ERAT’ (dalam ejaan lama ,asli seperti dalam buku tersebut).

II. PRANGKO BUNG KARNO

1. MASA PERANG KEMEDEKAAN(1945-1949)

2 MASA RIS(1949-1950)

3. MASA ORDE LAMA (1951-1965)

III. MATA UANG BUNG KARNO

IV. KARYA SENI TERKAIT BUNG KARNO

V.KOLESI BUNG KARNO JENIS LAINNYA

1.INFO KELUARGA BUNG KARNO MUTHAKIR

1) Pernikahan Kartika Soekarno

Seegers-Kartika

“Mas… tulis dong tentang Karina Soekarno…,” begitu permintaan seseorang yang termasuk golongan orang-orang yang rajin berkunjung ke blog ini…. Yang terlintas di benak saya adalah serentet peristiwa terkait Kartika Sari Soekarno atau yang akrab disapa Karina. Dialah buah cinta Bung Karno dan Ratna Sari Dewi, wanita cantik asal Jepang, yang bernama asli Naoko Nemoto.

Ada sekelebat peristiwa ketika Karina kecil dituntun-tuntun di antara kerumuman pelayat jenazah Bung Karno di Wisma Yaso tahun 1971. Ada pula lintasan peristiwa manakala Karina diajak ibundanya berziarah ke makam ayahandanya di Blitar, beberapa tahun kemudian. Dan… tentu saja yang masih lekat adalah peristiwa pernikahan Karina dengan seorang bankir Belanda.

Pernikahan Karina dengan Frits Frederik Seegers berlangsung 2 Desember 2005 di hotel Continental, Amsterdam, Belanda. Frits adalah President Citibank wilayah Eropa. Saat itu, saya masih mengelola Tabloid Cita-Cita dan mendapat sumbangan materi foto-foto eksklusif dari Guruh Soekarnoputra di Yayasan Bung Karno.

Seegers-Kartika3

Megawati sebagai saksi

Dalam pernikahan itu, Megawati Soekarnoputri, kakak Karina dari ibu Fatmawati, bertindak selaku saksi. Tampak Mega tengah menandatangani dokumen pernikahan adiknya. Megawati sendiri hadir bersama putrinya, Puan Maharani, dan adik bungsunya, Guruh Soekarnoputra.

mempelai-guruh-cindy-mega

Pasca upacara pernikahan, Frits Frederik Seegers dan Karina bergambar bersama Guruh Soekarnoputra, Cindy Adams, dan Megawati Soekarnoputri.

guruh-cindy-mega-ratna sari dewi

guruh-mega-puan-kartika

Guruh - Kartika

Dalam resepsi itu, hadir sejumlah orang dekat mempelai, tak terkecuali hadirnya Cindy Adams, penulis biografi Bung Karno. Tak ayal, momentum pernikahan Karina – Seegers menjadi ajang kangen-kangenan di antara kerabat yang sehari-hari terpisah bentang jarak ribuan mil.

tari bali di resepsi

Di hotel Continental pula, pada malamnya langsung digelar resepsi. Selain gala dinner yang eksklusif, Karina juga mendatangkan para penari Bali untuk menghibur para tamu.

Usai menikah, pasangan pengantin baru langsung kembali ke London, Inggris, dan menetap di sana. Karina kembali ke rutinitasnya sebagai aktivis sosial dengan bendera Kartika Soekarno Foundation, sementara suaminya, kembali ke Citibank. (roso daras)

THE END.

__________________________________________________________________________

MORE INFORMATION ONLY FOR PREMIUM MEMBERS.

PS. KOLEKSI BUNG KARNO AKAN DIUPDATE SETIAP DITEMUI KOLEKSI BARU

@corpyright Dr Iwan s 2011

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Posted in museum Bung Karno

The Zanzibar Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 12, 2011 | Leave a comment

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Zanzibar Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The Zanzibar Collections(Dr Iwan PrivateCollections)

1.Postal History

Sun and crown, 1890

Britain had interests in this area as early as 1824. Missionaries are known to have settled in the area in 1844. The Imperial British East Africa Company obtained a concession in 1887 to administer this area, from Sultan Bargash of the Sultanate of Zanzibar. The company started to experience financial difficulies in 1891. The situation was made more difficult in 1892 when Britain declared the Sultanate of Zanzibar part of the Congo Free Trade Zone and thus depriving the company of import duties.^[1] On 1 July 1895 the British government took over the administration of this area when the company was facing bankruptcy.

Pre-stamp era

The early missionaries in British East Africa sent letters by runner to forwarding agents in Zanzibar. Letters are known from as early as 1848. From 1875 mail was sent via the Indian post office which had been opened in Zanzibar.

Zanzibar under EIC east India Company rules and india stamp used in this country (India Used abroad)

Imperial British East Africa Company administration

The Imperial British East Africa Company set up post offices at Mombasa and Lamu in May 1890.^[2] The first stamps issued, on 23 May 1890, were surcharges on British postage stamps with values of ½, 1 and 4 annas and ‘BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY’.

During an acute shortage of stamps in August and September 1890 stamps of India were used and are known postmarked ‘MOMBASA’ or ‘LAMU’. It is alleged that an agent of stamp dealer Whitfield King bought up all the stocks in the post offices.^[3]

The British East Africa Company issued stamps, on 14 October 1890, using a symbolic sun and crown design and inscribed ‘IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY’, all valued in annas and rupees.

Shortages, of some values, between 1891 and 1895 resulted in a variety of surcharges being produced.^[2]

British administration

On 9 July 1895 stamps of Imperial British East Africa Company were overprinted reading ‘BRITISH / EAST / AFRICA’ and overprints of ‘British / East / Africa’ on stamps of India were also issued.^[2] The protectorate joined the Universal Postal Union at this time.

In 1896 a series of stamps depicting Queen Victoria was issued, inscribed ‘BRITISH EAST AFRICA’, these ran short in 1897 and stamps of Zanzibar were overprinted as the stamps of India had been previously. A number of additional post offices were opened along the Uganda Railway, which was started in 1896 at Mombasa and reached Kisumu on Lake Victoria in 1902.

In 1901 the postal administration was merged with that of Uganda, and in 1904 stamps issued for the combined East Africa and Uganda Protectorates came into use.^[2]

1895 overprint on Indian stamp

2½ annas, 1896

Zanzibar overprint, 1897

Postal stationery

Imperial British East Africa Company Administration
All postal stationery items were inscribed ‘IMPERIAL BRITISH EAST AFRICA COMPANY’. Two different sizes of registration envelopes were issued in 1891; produced by Bradbury, Wilkinson & Co. Three different sizes of pre paid 2½ annas envelopes were issued in 1893. Two postcards were made available in 1893; ½ anna and 1 anna.^[4]^[5]

British administration

British East Africa 1 anna newspaper wrapper postmarked LAMU 26 Feb 1897, used locally

In 1895 one of the sizes of Imperial British East Africa Company envelopes was overprinted ‘BRITISH EAST AFRICA’. In 1896 Two different envelopes were produced by overprinting envelopes from India with ‘British East Africa’; 2½ annas on 4½ annas envelope and 2 annas 6 pies. Also in 1896 2½ annas envelopes were printed by De la Rue and inscribed ‘BRITISH EAST AFRICA PROTECTORATE’.^[4]^[5]

In 1895 Imperial British East Africa Company registration envelopes was overprinted ‘BRITISH EAST AFRICA’. These were followed by 2 annas registration envelopes, in two different sizes, from India being overprinted ‘British East Africa’. Finally, two sizes of registration envelopes, printed by De la Rue, were made available

EIC est India compay Rules Used India stamp

.^[4]^[5]

Four different newspaper wrappers were issued during 1896. Two were produced by overprinting Indian ½ anna and 1 anna wrappers with ‘British East Africa’ and two, ½ anna and 1 anna, were printed by De la Rue.^[4]^[5]

A total of eight different postcards were produced with a face value of ½ anna or 1 anna. Two were by overprinting Imperial British East Africa Company postcards, two were by overprinting Indian postcards and the remaining ones were printed by De la Rue.^[4]^[5]

KINGDOM ZANZIBAR POSTAL HISTORY

2.Numismatic

3.Pictures

4.Travelling Around Zanzibar Island

For a small island in the southern waters of the Indian Ocean, Zanzibar has a long and unexpected history. Believed to have been settled first by the Bantu people, some three to four thousand years ago, Zanzibar has a history of hosting foreigners from Egypt, Greece, Persia, Arabia, India, China and Europe resulting in a architectural feast of Arabic-style houses with Indian-influenced ornate balconies and latticework.

Combine Zanzibar’s exciting history of mixed influences, vibrant oriental style bazaars, pristine beaches and tropical forests and this ‘spice island’ is an enticing, alluring destination.

By mid 19th century, a reported 25,000 slaves were bought and sold each year in Zanzibar. In Stone town we visit the notorious site of world’s last open slave market and the Anglican Christ Church cathedral built in 1874, which stands exactly on the site of the former slave market with the high altar marking the location of the old whipping post.

Without a guide, you’ll never find nutmeg sitting on the forest floor or think to peel the bark off of a cinnamon tree but these are some of the fun things we do on our spice tour. We go from plant to plant trying to find the spice within before sampling the fruits of the forest like cinnamon tea and freshly picked pineapple and lychees.

Ever dreamed of swimming with a pod of dolphins? We spend a day in the beautiful Menal Bay where you can watch the resident bottlenose and humpback dolphins play in the wake of our boat. If you’re game, you can enter the water and enjoy these highly social mammals in their natural habitat.

Other activities include a trip to the beautiful beaches and giant tortoises of Prison Island, a full day scuba dive in Nungwe or a fishing trip in a traditional dhow.

8 day Destination Zanzibar price (excl. airfares) starts from AUD $2995

A great time to visit Zanzibar is during the Sauti za Busara, a Swahili music and dance festival in February.

5.The Australian Royal Navy In Zanzibar Historic collections(Google Exploration)

Recently I was in a country bookshop and looking through a shoebox of old postcards. I started going through it, examining the reverse sides of the cards looking for any stamps of interest. Most stamps had been removed, but I suddenly came across one from Zanzibar! This stopped me in my tracks, not only did it have the Zanzibar stamp dated 1915, but also a Bombay transit cancellation and addressed to a woman in North Williamstown in Victoria, Australia.

I couldn’t wait to get it home and do some research. My initial reaction was that it was perhaps a merchant or even a missionary heading to Africa (visions of The African Queen). It was the date that fascinated me. After a night of research I realised that there was an Australian naval vessel “coaling” in Zanzibar at the time and it was, indeed, heading to German East Africa!

I resolved to find out more about the ship. It was the HMAS Pioneer.

Here is a brief history of the vessel:

HMS Pioneer was commissioned by the Royal Navy on 10 July 1900. She was a Pelorus Class Light Cruiser with a displacement of 2200 tons and a complement of 225.

Following a period in home waters, Pioneer proceeded on 15 November 1900 to the Mediterranean Station where she relieved the cruiser HMS Fearless. She served for four years in Mediterranean waters, returning to Chatham on 20 December 1904 where she was placed in Reserve.

She recommissioned on 5 September 1905 for service on the Australia Station as one of the ‘Drill Ships’ provided for under the Naval Agreement (1903) concluded between the Australian Commonwealth and the Imperial Government. Pioneer relieved HMS Mildura, her sister ships HMS Psyche and HMS Pyramus at the same time replacing HM Ships Katoomba and Phoebe.

The Australian Squadron commanded by Sir Arthur D. Fanshawe KCB, then comprised HMS Powerful (Flagship – 14,200 tons), the second class cruisers HMS Cambrian (4,360 tons) and HMS Encounter (5,880 tons) and two other Pelorus class cruisers, HMS Pegasus and HMS Prometheus.

Pioneer continued in service as a unit of the Royal Navy on the Australia Station until 29 November 1912 when she paid off at Sydney for transfer to the Royal Australian Navy as a gift from the Admiralty. The Commonwealth Naval Board assumed control of her on 1 March 1913 and on the same day she commissioned in the Royal Australian Navy as HMAS Pioneer with a nucleus crew, as tender to HMAS Penguin.

In July 1913 refitting began at Garden Island, work which was not completed until the close of the year. On 1 January 1914 she commissioned as an independent command for service as a seagoing training ship for the Naval Reserve, operating under the orders of the Director of Naval Reserves. The months preceding the outbreak of World War I were spent in eastern and southern Australian waters, cruising from her base at Sydney to Melbourne, Adelaide and Hobart.

When war with Germany was declared on 4 August 1914, Pioneer was at Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne. The following day she sailed for Fremantle to operate on patrol on the Western Australian coast. Operations began on 16 August, and on that day, some eight miles west of Rottnest Island, Pioneer captured the German steamer Neumunster (4,424 tons) and took her into Fremantle. On 26 August she captured a second ship, the 4,994 ton Norddeutscher-Lloyd vessel Thuringen, also off Rottnest Island. Neumunster was taken over by the Commonwealth Government as a prize of war and renamed Cooee. Thuringen was renamed Moora and handed over to the Indian Government for service as a troopship.

On 4 September Pioneer proceeded from Fremantle on patrol to Darwin, calling Port at Hedland and Broome en route.

On 1 November 1914 Pioneer sailed as part of the escort to the First Australian Convoy comprising 38 transports but, just as she was taking up position between the Australian and New Zealand divisions, her engines broke down and the Flagship, HMS Minotaur, ordered her to return to Fremantle. Thus she probably missed encountering the German cruiser Emden instead of HMAS Sydney as she was under orders to diverge from the convoy route to inspect the Cocos Islands.

On 24 December 1914 the Admiralty requested the aid of Pioneer as a blockading ship on the German East African coast, where the German cruiser Königsberg had taken shelter up one of the mouths of the Rufigi River a few miles south of Zanzibar.

Sailing from Fremantle on 9 January 1915, Pioneer proceeded to the Cocos Islands, where as she coaled from her attendant collier her crew inspected the wreck of the Emden, destroyed by Sydney on 9 November 1914. After leaving the Cocos Islands, she proceeded to Diego Garcia in the Chagos Archipelago and then to Zanzibar which was reached on 6 February.

The Königsberg at this period was sheltering up the Rufigi River beyond the range of effective fire from the sea but it was thought that she might attempt to break out. Thus the British forces at sea had a double duty; firstly the maintenance of a blockade to prevent supplies reaching German forces ashore in East Africa; and secondly the neutralisation of a dangerous warship which had already destroyed Pioneer’s sister ship Pegasus.

The force assembled for this task comprised Pioneer, the light cruisers HMS Weymouth and HMS Hyacinth, HMS Pyramus (another of Pioneer’s sister ships), the armed merchant cruiser Kinfauns Castle, four armed whalers, an armed steamer and an armed tug. Formal blockade was proclaimed on 1 March 1915 and five days later Vice Admiral King-Hall arrived in the old battleship HMS Goliath to take charge.

The East African coastline was for the purposes of operations, divided into three sections and Pioneer was allotted in charge of the northern most area from north of Tanga past the island of Zanzibar to a point just south of Dar-es-Salaam, with the armed steamer Duplex and the whaler Pickle.

With several attempts to drive Königsberg from her lair having failed, it was decided to tow to the scene two monitors, HMS Severn and HMS Mersey, and taking advantage of their shallow draught, take them upstream within range of the enemy. The attack began on 6 July 1915 and while Hyacinth and Pioneer bombarded the area of the main (Simba Uranga) mouth of the river, the monitors steamed up the northern (Kikunya) arm, anchored and began firing alternate salvoes. Surgeon Lieutenant G.A. Melville-Anderson in Pioneer describing the scene recorded:

“We approached very cautiously, and when we were about 5,000 yards from the river entrance, we dropped anchor and allowed the tide to swing us broadside on. Hence all our starboard guns bore on the entrance. Very soon we were firing salvoes and then each gun rapidly independently. Our shells were bursting everywhere, throwing up great clouds of sand and earth.

Coaling party from crew of HMAS Pioneer on deck 1915.

In the meantime they were steaming up the river under heavy fire from the banks, but they went on and soon were within range of the Königsberg. They then began to fire, the range being about five miles. Aeroplanes assisted the monitors in locating the position but were not very successful. The Königsberg fired salvoes of five guns with good accuracy but soon she dropped to four then to three and two and finally one. During the last hour-and-a-half of the engagement she ceased fire altogether.”

The monitors, however, failed to destroy the German cruiser and in her turn she hit Mersey’s foremost gun, killing six men. At 3:30 pm and after firing 600 6-inch shells, both were withdrawn.

The operation was repeated on 12 July. This time Königsberg straddled the Severn as she prepared to drop anchor, but Severn quickly got the range and hit the German several times, setting her on fire and forcing the enemy to complete demolition after removal of the guns.

It is interesting to note there was a dire shortage of every day items, including brass ingots, in German East Africa during the siege, so the besieged Germans melted down a 4.1 inch brass gun taken from the Königsberg. Some of this brass was used to produce much-needed coinage. (An example of 20 heller coin is shown.)

Following the destruction of Königsberg, Pioneer spent a period patrolling off the river mouth and later spent some time in the southern section of the blockade area. By the end of July she had been under way every day for more than six months, except for nine days spent in harbour.

On 31 August 1915 she withdrew and proceeded to Simonstown for refit. Six weeks were spent in dock and on 22 October she proceeded to return to the patrol area, calling at Lorenzo Marquez, Beira, Mozambique, Port Amelia and Ibo en route.

Patrolling was resumed in the southern section in November. The task involved routine patrolling with no enemy opposition and in the main it was uneventful, monotonous work. Two incidents occurring before the close of 1915 are nevertheless worth mentioning. Surgeon Lieutenant Melville-Anderson wrote in his diary records that at 8:30 am on 20 November Pioneer landed fifty men on Mafia Island, off the East African coast, to witness the shooting of two Arabs.

Melville-Anderson wrote: ‘These Arabs, had assisted some Germans to cross from the mainland under cover of night to obtain military information. They gave them shelter and native clothing, thus enabling them to get about the island undetected. But, they were discovered and the two Arabs, after being court-martialled, were sentenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out in the Market Place to impress the natives and we were drawn up in the Square. The Arabs were each bound to two upright poles, blind-folded and handcuffed and the firing party of Askaris (native troops) fired a volley. Another medical officer and myself examined them and considered life extinct in one, but not the other so it was decided to fire another volley.’

The second incident occurred on 20 December 1915. On that day, Pioneer anchored in Nazi Bay and sent a cutter away to obtain provisions. A hundred yards from the beach the cutter suddenly came under rapid fire from the shore. Two men were wounded before the boat could be brought about to pull back to the ship under the protection of 4-inch fire.
On Christmas Day 1915, Pioneer anchored in the Lindi River off the Lindi township. Lieutenant Melville-Anderson commented ‘As the day progressed, the Germans on shore signalled Christmas greetings and we reciprocated and added, “Send boat for presents”. They signalled back “Thank you, will try” – but for some unexplained reason no boat came from the shore. The day was a merry one and in the dogwatches we proceeded to sea for Mombasa.’

Frame Two:

The Zanzibar Historic Collections

History of Tanzania

Timeline
History of Zanzibar
Colonial period
Scramble for Africa
Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty
Maji Maji Rebellion
East African Campaign
British East Africa
Modern history
Zanzibar Revolution
Ujamaa

People have lived in Zanzibar for 20,000 years; history proper starts when the islands became a base for traders voyaging between Arabia, India, and Africa. Unguja offered a protected and defensible harbour, so although the archipelago had few products of value, Arabs settled at what became Zanzibar City (Stone Town) as a convenient point from which to trade with East African coastal towns. They established garrisons on the islands and built the first mosque in the Southern hemisphere.

During the Age of Exploration, the Portuguese Empire was the first European power to gain control of Zanzibar, and kept it for nearly 200 years. In 1698 Zanzibar fell under the control of the Sultanate of Oman, which developed an economy of trade and cash crops, with a ruling Arab elite. Plantations were developed to grow spices, hence the moniker of the Spice Islands (a name also used of Dutch colony the Moluccas, now part of Indonesia). Another major trade good was ivory, the tusks of elephants killed in mainland Africa. The third pillar of the economy was slaves, giving Zanzibar an important place in the Arab slave trade, the Indian Ocean equivalent of the better-known Triangular Trade. The Sultan of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the East African coast, known as Zanj, and extensive inland trading routes.

Sometimes gradually, sometimes by fits and starts, control came into the hands of the British Empire; part of the political impetus for this was the movement for the abolition of the slave trade. In 1890 Zanzibar became a British protectorate. The death of one sultan and the succession of another of whom the British did not approve led to the Anglo-Zanzibar War, also known as The Shortest War in History.

The islands gained independence from Britain in December 1963 as a constitutional monarchy. A month later, the bloody Zanzibar Revolution, in which several thousand Arabs and Indians were killed and thousands more expelled and expropriated, led to the Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. That April, the republic merged with the mainland Tanganyika, or more accurately, was subsumed into Tanzania, of which Zanzibar remains a semi-autonomous region. Zanzibar was most recently in the international news with a January 2001 massacre, following contested elections.

The History of Zanzibar

Zanzibar has lured traders, adventurers, plunderers and explorers to its shores for centuries. The Assyrians, Sumerians, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Indians, Chinese, Persians, Portuguese, Omani Arabs, Dutch and English have all been here at one time or another. Some, particularly the Shirazi Persians and Omani Arabs, stayed to settle and rule. With this influence, Zanzibar has become predominantly Islamic (97%) – the remaining 3% is made up of Christians, Hindus and Sikhs.

The earliest visitors to Zanzibar were Arab traders who are said to have arrived in the 8th century. The earliest building that remains on Zanzibar is the mosque at Kizimkazi which dates from 1107, and is a present-day tourist attraction.

For centuries the Arabs sailed with the Monsoon winds from Oman to trade primarily in ivory, slaves and spices. The two main islands, Unguja (normally known as Zanzibar Island ) and Pemba, provided an ideal base for the Omani Arabs, being relatively small, and therefore fairly easy to defend. From here it was possible for them to control 1,000 miles of the mainland coast from present day Mozambique to Somalia. Indeed, in 1832, Sultan Seyyid Said, of the Busaid Dynasty that had emerged in Oman, moved his Sultanate from Muscat, which was perhaps more difficult to protect, to Zanzibar where he and his descendants ruled for over 130 years. Most of the wealth lay in the hands of the Arab community, who were the main landowners, and generally did not intermarry with the Africans.

This was not true of the Shirazi Persians who came from the Middle East to settle on the East African coast. The story goes that in AD 975, Abi Ben Sultan Hasan of Shiraz in Persia (now Iran) had a terrible nightmare in which a rat devoured the foundations of his house. He took this as an omen that his community was to be devastated. Others in the Shiraz Court ridiculed the notion, but Sultan Hasan, his family and some followers obviously took it very seriously because they decided to migrate. They set out in seven dhows into the Indian Ocean but were caught in a huge storm and separated. Thus, landfalls were made at seven different places along the East African coast, one of which was Zanzibar, and settlements began.

Widespread intermarriage between Shirazis and Africans gave rise to a coastal community with distinctive features, and a language derived in part from Arabic, which became known as Swahili. The name Swahili comes from the Arab word sawahil which means ‘coast’. The Zanzibar descendants of this group were not greatly involved in the lucrative slave, spice and ivory trades. Instead, they immersed themselves mainly in agriculture and fishing. Those Shirazis that did not intermarry retained their identity as a separate group.

Two smaller communities were also established. Indian traders arrived in connection with the spice and ivory trade, and quickly settled as shopkeepers, traders, skilled artisans, and professionals. The British became involved in missionary and trading activities in East Africa, and attempting to suppress the slave trade centred in Zanzibar .

The Slave Trade

In 1822, the Omani Arabs signed the Moresby treaty which amongst other things, made it illegal for them to sell slaves to Christian powers. So that this agreement could be monitored, the United States and Great Britain established diplomatic relations with Zanzibar, and sent Consuls to the islands. However, the slaving restrictions were largely ignored, and the trade continued to kill and imprison countless Africans.

Caravans started out from Bagamoyo on the mainland coast, travelling as much as 1,000 miles on foot as far as Lake Tanganyika, buying slaves from local rulers on the way, or, more cheaply, simply capturing them. The slaves were chained together and used to carried ivory back to Bagamoyo. The name Bagamoyo means ‘lay down your heart;’ because it was here that slaves would abandon hope of freedom. Slaves who survived the long trek from the interior were crammed into dhows bound for Zanzibar, and paraded for sale like cattle in the Slave Market.

All of the main racial groups were involved in the slave trade in some way or other. Europeans used slaves in their plantations in the Indian Ocean islands, Arabs were the main traders, and African rulers sold prisoners taken in battle. Being sold into slavery was not a prisoner’s worst fate – if a prolonged conflict led to a glut, the Doe tribe north of Bagamoyo had the rather gruesome habit of eating ‘excess supplies’.

Sultan Barghash was forced in 1873, under the threat of a British naval bombardment, to sign an edict which made the sea-borne slave trade illegal, and the slave market in Zanzibar was closed, with the Cathedral Church of Christ erected on the site. But the trade continued, particularly on the mainland.

Slaving was illegal, but it existed openly until Britain took over the mainland following their defeat of the Germans in the First World War. Many former slaves found that their conditions had hardly changed – they were now simply employed as labourers at very low wage rates in the spice plantations

A statue representing the slave holding cells at auctions

Beit el-Ajaib, the House of Wonders, with Zanzibar harbour in the foreground

Beit el-Ajaib, the House of Wonders, as it stands today

Khalifa Bin Harab (with tennis racquet), became Sultan in 1911

The Spice Trade

Cloves were introduced here in 1818, and flourished in the tropical climate and fertile soil of the western areas of both Zanzibar and Pemba . By the middle of the century, the Zanzibar archipelago was the world’s largest producer of cloves, and the largest slave trading centre on the East African coast. Slaves were used for the cultivation and harvesting of cloves, and the Sultan occupied so many plots that by his death in 1856, he had 45 plantations. Plots were also acquired by his children, and many concubines and eunuchs from the royal harem. Over time, several other spices such as cinnamon, cumin, ginger, pepper and cardamom were introduced. Their rich fragrance became synonymous with Zanzibar , which became known as the ‘Spice Islands’.

Slaves, spices and ivory provided the basis of considerable prosperity, and Zanzibar became the most important entrepôt in the Western Indian Ocean. All other East African coastal centres were subject to it and almost all trade passed through it.

The Explorers

Zanzibar was the starting point for the great European adventurers who tried to map the interior. Most followed the long-established caravan routes before reaching territory unknown even to the traders. The dangers were significant for these first Europeans in East Africa ‘s interior – for them, a strange and unexplored land.

In 1844, John Krapf, a German missionary arrived in Zanzibar . He was later joined by John Rebbman who became the first European to see Mount Kilimanjaro. Burton and Speke set off from Britain in 1857 to solve the mystery of the source of the Nile, and they also made Zanzibar their base. Other explorers followed – Dr David Livingstone was provided with a house in 1866 from where he planned and kitted out his final expedition. Stanley also used it in 1871 before setting out on one of history’s famous searches, culminating in Stanley’s legendary phrase “Doctor Livingstone, I presume?” The great Doctor died two years later, and his body was carried back to Zanzibar, before sailing on to its final resting place in Westminster Abbey. Livingstone’s House in Zanzibar is a well known present-day feature of Stone Town, and his medicine chest and correspondence can be seen in the National Museum.

Wealth of the Sultans

Zanzibar continued to prosper with the expansion of the trade in cloves and other spices. The fine buildings which make Zanzibar Stone Town such an amazing place were constructed to a high standard by rich Arabs, British administrators and prosperous Indian businessmen.

The wealth and excess of successive Sultans was considerable. Islamic law allowed them to have up to four wives, and their wealth meant they were able to exercise this privilege, raising many children. Sultan Barghash was particularly extravagant, and adopted a more elaborate style of living than previous Sultans, with the construction of several new palaces. In 1883, he built Beit el-Ajaib, the House of Wonders, which still stands today, and was the largest building in Zanzibar , the first to have electric lights and an electric lift. Until 1911, the Sultan of the day maintained a harem of around 100 concubines, all with attendant eunuchs. He slept with 5 concubines a night, in strict rotation and many concubines had children, who were supported by the Sultan’s riches.

Such practices changed with the succession of Khalifa Bin Harab, as Sultan in 1911. The harem and concubines were discontinued and political reforms were introduced with increasingly democratic representation until the Sultan was a constitutional monarch without major legislative or executive powers.

By the 1920’s, Zanzibar had been established as a British protectorate for some time – the cities bustled with economic activity, and the bazaars were lined with craftsmen who produced carved doors and brass-studded chests, gold and silver jewellery, pottery and embroidery.

Independance & the Union with Tanganyika

Following elections and Independence in 1963, the broad-based and predominantly African ‘Afro-Shirazi Party’ (ASP) had the majority of the popular vote, but despite this, power was held by a coalition of two parties supported by the British.

At this time, there was a growing movement for independence from colonialism and its ties throughout East Africa , with independence for Tanganyika in 1961, Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in 1963.

Following the Zanzibar revolution of 1964, the ASP’s Abeid Karume became Prime Minister. Later that year, Karume and Tanganyika’s Julius Nyerere signed an Act of Union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania – the blue triangle in the flag represents Zanzibar ‘s part of the Union. In 1977, the mainland party and ASP merged to form Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) which remains in power today. Zanzibar is semi-autonomous, with its own President and House of Representatives.

Prehistory

Zanzibar has been inhabited since the Paleolithic. A cave containing traces of microlithic tools revealed 20,000 years of human occupation of Zanzibar (Sinclair et al. 2006). These tools are common to Later Stone Age hunter-gatherer communities. Archaeological discoveries of a limestone cave used radiocarbon techniques to prove more recent occupation, from around 2800 BCE to around the year 0 (Chami 2006). Traces of the communities include objects such as glass beads from around the Indian Ocean. It is a suggestion of early trans-oceanic trade networks, although some writers have expressed pessimism about this possibility.

No cave sites on Zanzibar have revealed pottery fragments used by early and later farming and iron-working communities who lived on the islands (Zanzibar, Mafia) during the first millennium CE. On Zanzibar, the evidence for the later farming and iron-working communities dating from the mid-first millennium CE is much stronger and indicates the beginning of urbanism there when settlements were built with mud-timber structures (Juma 2004). This is somewhat earlier than the existing evidence for towns in other parts of the East African coast, given as the 9th century CE. The first permanent residents of Zanzibar seem to have been the ancestors of the Hadimu and Tumbatu, who began arriving from the East African mainland around 1000 CE. They had belonged to various mainland ethnic groups, and on Zanzibar they lived in small villages and failed to coalesce to form larger political units. Because they lacked central organization, they were easily subjugated by outsiders.

Early Iranian & Arab rule

Ancient pottery demonstrates existing trade routes with Zanzibar as far back as the ancient Sumer and Assyria. ^[1] An ancient pendant discovered near Eshunna dated ca. 2500-2400 BCE. has been traced to copal imported from the Zanzibar region. ^[2]

Traders from Arabia (mostly Yemen), the Persian Gulf region of Iran (especially Shiraz), and west India probably visited Zanzibar as early as the 1st century CE. They used the monsoon winds to sail across the Indian Ocean and landed at the sheltered harbor located on the site of present-day Zanzibar Town. Although the islands had few resources of interest to the traders, they offered a good location from which to make contact and trade with the towns of the East African coast. A phase of urban development associated with the introduction of stone material to the construction industry of the East African coast began from the 10th century CE.

Traders began to settle in small numbers on Zanzibar in the late 11th or 12th century, intermarrying with the indigenous Africans. Eventually a hereditary ruler (known as the Mwenyi Mkuu or Jumbe), emerged among the Hadimu, and a similar ruler, called the Sheha, was set up among the Tumbatu. Neither had much power, but they helped solidify the ethnic identity of their respective peoples.

The Yemenis built the earliest mosque in the southern hemisphere in Kizimkazi, the southernmost village in Unguja. A kufic inscription on its mihrab bears the date AH 500, i.e. 1107 CE.

Portuguese rule

Vasco da Gama‘s visit in 1499 marks the beginning of European influence, and the Portuguese established control over the island four years later. In August 1505, it became part of the Portuguese Empire when Captain John (João) Homere, part of Francisco de Almeida‘s fleet, captured the island. It was to remain a possession of Portugal for almost two centuries.

Later Arab rule

In 1698, Zanzibar became part of the overseas holdings of Oman, falling under the control of the Sultan of Oman. The Portuguese were expelled and a lucrative trade in slaves and ivory thrived, along with an expanding plantation economy centring on cloves. The Arabs established garrisons at Zanzibar, Pemba, and Kilwa. The height of Arab rule came during the reign of Seyyid Said (more fully, Sayyid Said bin Sultan al-Busaid), who in 1840 moved his capital from Muscat in Oman to Stone Town. He established a ruling Arab elite and encouraged the development of clove plantations, using the island’s slave labour. Zanzibar’s commerce fell increasingly into the hands of traders from the Indian subcontinent, whom Said encouraged to settle on the island. After his death in 1856, his sons struggled over the succession. On April 6, 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Sayyid Majid bin Said Al-Busaid (1834/5–1870), his sixth son, became the Sultan of Zanzibar, while the third son, Sayyid Thuwaini bin Said al-Said, became the Sultan of Oman.

The Sultan of Zanzibar controlled a substantial portion of the east African coast, known as Zanj, and trading routes extending much further across the continent, as far as Kindu on the Congo River. In November 1886, a German-British border commission established the Zanj as a ten-nautical mile (19 km) wide strip along most of the coast of East Africa, stretching from Cape Delgado (now in Mozambique) to Kipini (now in Kenya), including Mombasa and Dar es Salaam, all offshore islands, and several towns in what is now Somalia. However, from 1887 to 1892, all of these mainland possessions were lost to the colonial powers of the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy, although some were not formally sold or ceded until the 20th century (Mogadishu to Italy in 1905 and Mombasa to Britain in 1963).

Zanzibar was famous worldwide for its spices and its slaves. It was East Africa’s main slave-trading port, and in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the slave markets of Zanzibar each year.^[3] (David Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died each year before ever reaching the island.) Tippu Tip was the most notorious slaver, under several sultans, and also a trader, plantation owner and governor. Zanzibar’s spices attracted ships from as far away as the United States, which established a consulate in 1837. The United Kingdom‘s early interest in Zanzibar was motivated by both commerce and the determination to end the slave trade.^[4] In 1822, the British signed the first of a series of treaties with Sultan Said to curb this trade, but not until 1876 was the sale of slaves finally prohibited.

Zanzibar had the distinction of having the first steam locomotive in East Africa, when Sultan Bargash bin Said ordered a tiny 0-4-0 tank engine to haul his regal carriage from town to his summer palace at Chukwani.

British influence and rule

The British Empire gradually took over; the relationship was formalised by the 1890 Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty, in which Germany pledged, among other things, not to interfere with British interests in Zanzibar. This treaty made Zanzibar and Pemba a British protectorate (not colony), and the Caprivi Strip (in what is now Namibia) a German protectorate. British rule through a sultan (vizier) remained largely unchanged.

The death of Hamad bin Thuwaini on 25 August 1896 saw the Khalid bin Bargash, eldest son of the second sultan, Barghash ibn Sa’id, take over the palace and declare himself the new ruler. This was contrary to the wishes of the British government, which favoured Hamoud bin Mohammed. This led to a showdown, later called the Anglo-Zanzibar War, on the morning of 27 August, when ships of the Royal Navy destroyed the Beit al Hukum Palace, having given Khalid a one-hour ultimatum to leave. He refused, and at 9 am the ships opened fire. Khalid’s troops returned fire and he fled to the German consulate. A cease fire was declared 45 minutes after the action had begun, giving the bombardment the title of The Shortest War in History. Hamoud was declared the new ruler and peace was restored once more. Acquiescing to British demands, he brought an end in 1897 to Zanzibar’s role as a centre for the centuries-old eastern slave trade by banning slavery and freeing the slaves, compensating their owners. Hamoud’s son and heir apparent, Ali, was educated in Britain.

From 1913 until independence in 1963, the British appointed their own residents (essentially governors).

Independence and revolution

On 10 December 1963, Zanzibar received its independence from the United Kingdom as a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan. This state of affairs was short-lived, as the Sultan and the democratically elected government were overthrown on 12 January 1964 in the Zanzibar Revolution led by John Okello, a Ugandan citizen. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume was named President of the newly created People’s Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba. Several thousand Arabs (5,000-12,000 Zanzibaris of Arabic descent) and Indians were killed, thousands more detained or expelled, their property either confiscated or destroyed. The film Africa Addio documents the revolution, including a massacre of Arabs. (Ethnic difference, and the expulsion of those who had anywhere else to go, were repeated themes in East Africa, the most prominent example being the Expulsion of Indians in Uganda in 1972 by Idi Amin.)

The revolutionary government nationalized the local operations of the two foreign banks in Zanzibar, Standard Bank and National and Grindlays Bank. These nationalized operations may have provided the foundation for the newly-created Peoples Bank of Zanzibar. Jetha Lila, the one locally-owned bank in Zanzibar, or for that matter in all of East Africa, closed. It was owned by Indians and though the revolutionary government of Zanzibar urged it to continue functioning, the loss of its customer base as Indians left the island made it impossible to continue.

Union with Tanganyika

On 26 April 1964, the mainland colony of Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar; this lengthy name was compressed into a portmanteau, the United Republic of Tanzania, on 29 October 1964. After unification, local affairs were controlled by President Abeid Amani Karume, while foreign affairs were handled by the United Republic in Dar es Salaam. Zanzibar remains a semi-autonomous region of Tanzania.

From this point onwards, see History of Tanzania.

Lists of rulers

Sultans of Zanzibar

Majid bin Said (1856–1870)
Barghash bin Said (1870–1888)
Khalifah bin Said (1888–1890)
Ali bin Said (1890–1893)
Hamad bin Thuwaini (1893–1896)
Khalid bin Barghash (1896)
Hamud bin Muhammed (1896–1902)
Ali bin Hamud (1902–1911) (abdicated)

Khalifa bin Harub (1911–1960)
Abdullah bin Khalifa (1960–1963)
Jamshid bin Abdullah (1963–1964)

the end @ Copyright Dr Iwan Suwandy 2011

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The KUT Kenya Uganda Tanganyika(Tanzania) Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 11, 2011 | Leave a comment

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WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The KUT Kenya Uganda Tanganyika Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The KUT Collections(Dr Iwan PrivateCollections)

1.Postal History

1)British East africa

2)KUT british rule

(1) kenya

a) from mombasa city

b) From Nairobi

(2) Uganda

(3) Tanganyika

3.Independent

(1) Kenya

(2) Uganda

(3) Tanganyika (now Tanzania)

2.Numismatic

3.Pictures

1)Kenya

2)Uganda

3)Tanganyika(Tanzania)

4.Travelling Around

Frame Two:

The KUT Historic Collections

I.Postal History

1.British East Africa

Postage stamps and postal history of East Africa and Uganda Protectorates

East Africa and Uganda Protectorates was the name used by the combined postal service of the protectorates of British East Africa and Uganda between 1 April 1903 and 22 July 1920.

On 23 July 1920 British East Africa became a Crown Colony of Kenya, with the exception of a coastal strip which remained a protectorate

.^[1] Stamps were then inscribed “KENYA AND UGANDA”

The administration issued postage stamps with the profile of King Edward VII and inscribed “EAST AFRICA AND UGANDA PROTECTORATES” in 1903. The same basic design was used throughout the period, with new watermark and colours in 1904 and 1907, respectively, and the substitution of King George V in 1912. The 6c stamp was surcharged 4c in 1919.

While the lower-denomination stamps are common, stamps of up to 500 rupees were sold, primarily for use as revenue stamps. Postal usages of the higher values are scarce and valuable.

East Africa and Uganda Protectorates 1912 five rupees stamp

East Africa and Uganda Protectorates 1912 ten rupees stamp

Postal stationery

East Africa and Uganda one anna wrapper used 23 September 1901, postmarked “MALINDI E.A.PROTECTORATE”, addressed to Germany

The postal administration of East Africa and Uganda issued post paid envelopes, registration envelopes, wrappers, postcards and a telegram sheet. The designs of the imprints on registrations envelopes, newspaper wrappers and postcards were similar to that used on the stamps.^[2]^[3]

A total of four post paid envelopes were issued, the stamp imprint on all was oval with the head of king. A one anna envelope was issued in 1904, a six cent envelope was issued in 1907 and finally a 6 cent and a 10 cent envelope was issued with the head of King George in 1912.^[2]^[3]

Including different sizes, a total of eleven registration envelopes have been identified as having been issued; three during the reign of Edward VII and eight during the reign of George V.^[2]^[3]

Three different wrappers with the Edward VII design were produced and two with George V.^[2]^[3]

A total of 12 postcards are known to have been issued; eight during the reign of Edward VII and four during the reign of George V.^[2]^[3]

One unusual item of postal stationery item, issued in 1903, was a telegram sheet with a one rupee stamp imprint. The design of the stamp was hexagonal with the head of Edward VII in a circle in the centre.^[2]^[3]

2.KUT British rule

Postage stamps and postal history of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika

George V, 1935.

George VI with lion, 1938.

Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika (KUT) is the name on British postage stamps made for use in the royal colonies of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika. The stamps were circulated between 1935 and 1963 by the joint postal service of the three colonies, the East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration.^[1] Even after independence, the new separate nations continued to use the KUT stamps, and they remained valid for postage until 1977.^[2]

Philatelists usually classify the 1921-1927 postal issues of “Kenya and Uganda” and “East Africa and Uganda Protectorates” under the KUT rubric, but the first issues spelling out all the names of the colonies came in 1935, in the form of common design commemoratives for the Silver Jubilee of King George V as well as a definitive series featuring a profile of the king and local scenes. The definitives included a dramatic departure from the usual engraved stamps of the period; the 10c and £1 stamp were typographed and had a silhouette of a lion, with color combinations of black/yellow and black/red, respectively.

The same designs were reissued in 1938 with a profile of George VI. Wartime exigencies forced the use of surcharges on four South African stamps in 1941 and 1942, but after the war the usual common types (Peace Issue, Silver Wedding Issue, etc.) resumed. A definitive series, with new designs, was issued in 1954 for Queen Elizabeth, and in 1958 a pair of commemoratives marked the 100th anniversary of the discovery of the Great Lakes of Africa by Burton and Speke.

A new definitive series in 1960 used simpler and more symbolic designs, and was followed in 1963 by three sets of commemoratives. At this point postal service was taken over by the East African Common Services Organization, which issued commemoratives for the 1964 Summer Olympics inscribed “Uganda, Kenya, Tanganyika, Zanzibar”, even though they were never actually used in Zanzibar. After Tanganyika merged with Zanzibar to form Tanzania, subsequent stamps were inscribed “Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania”

, with the three names being listed in randomly varying orders.^[3]

These stamps were issued in parallel with stamps from each of the newly-independent nations. The Common Services Organization continued to issue various commemoratives, at the rate of about 10-12 per year, until early in 1976.

3.Postage stamps and postal history of Tanganyika

1922 G.E.A. overprinted 10- orange stamp of Tanganyika

10-cent giraffe, 1925

30-cent George V, 1927

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of the Tanganyika under British mandate.

First stamps

The first postage stamps of Tanganyika were stamps of the East Africa and Uganda Protectorates overprinted “G.E.A.” (for German East Africa), used in 1921 and 1922. These are superficially identical to the last occupation issues of German East Africa, but the presence of the “Crown and Script CA” watermark shows they were issued after the civil administration took over from the military, and are thus properly considered the first issues of Tanganyika.

Resource Page for Tanzania Stamps and Tanzania Postal History

GERMAN POSTAL AGENCY IN LAMU
A German postal agency was established in Lamu on 27 February 1885. German stamps were used by the agency and these can only be identified by the postmark.

GERMAN EAST AFRICA
The colony of German East Africa was established on 4 October 1890. The area of colony included mainland Tanganyika, Burundi and Rwanda. From 4 October 1890 till 30 June 1893 only German stamps were used in the colony. On 1 July 1893 stamps were issued for the colony.

On the outbreak of World War I, the Germans began making raids into British East Africa, Uganda, Congo, Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Mozambique. An attempted British landing at Tanga between 2 and 5 November 1914 was repulsed by the Germans. German East Africa stamps continued to be used in the area controlled by the Germans until they finally surrendered on 26 November 1918.

The colony was broken up by the Treaty of Versailles. The north-western area was given to Belgium as Ruanda-Urundi. The Kionga Triangle, an small area south of the Rovuma River, was given to Portugal to become part of Mozambique. The remainder went to Britain, which named it Tanganyika.

Mafia Island 1915 stamp MAFIA ISLAND
Mafia Island was captured by the British in January 1915. At first letters were allowed to be sent unstamped but on 14 January 1915 stamps were made available by handstamping German East Africa stamps “G.R. MAFIA” in two lines. More stamps were made available in May 1915 by overprinting German East Africa stamps “G. R. POST 6 CENTS MAFIA” in four lines. In September 1915 German East Africa fiscal stamps were handstamped with “O.H.B.M.S. Mafia” in a circle. In addition to these, stamps of the Indian Expeditionary Forces (India overprinted I.E.F.) were additionally overprinted “G. R. POST MAFIA” (September 1915) or “G. R. Post MAFIA” (October 1916) in three lines.

BRITISH OCCUPATION OF GERMAN EAST AFRICA
The offensive by the Allied force started in March 1916 from British East Africa, mainly by Indian troops. On 20 May 1916 the Nyasaland-Rhodesian Field Force began their offensive from Nyasaland. In the areas occupied by the Allied troops the civilian population were able to send mail through the Indian Army postal service using Indian stamps overprinted “I.E.F.”.

Some post office reverted to civilian control on 1 June 1917. Initially stamps of East Africa and Uganda were made available; then from October 1917 East Africa and Uganda stamps overprinted “G.E.A.” were made available. In 1921 stamps of Kenya and Uganda were overprinted “G.E.A.”. The last field post office to come under civlian control was on 15 March 1919.

Sometime during 1914-18 the British produced Parodies of the German East Africa yacht issue overprinted “G.E.A BRITISH OCCUPATION”.

In 1922 the colony became the British Mandated Territory of Tanganyika.

NYASALAND RHODESIAN FIELD FORCE
The Nyasaland Rhodesian Field Force, under the command of Brigadier General Edward Northey, began their offensive in East Africa on 20 May 1916. Northey’s force crossed into German East Africa on 25 May 1916. On May 30 they had occupied Neu Langenburg. On June 6 they captured Neu Utengulc. Alt Langenburg was occupied on June 13. Ubena was captured on June 30.

The troops could send normal letters without stamps via the field post office. If there was any additional postage required it required payment. At first unoverprinted Nyasaland stamps were used. Later at the request of Brigadier General Northey, to the Governor of Nyasaland, Nyasaland stamps were overprinted “N.F.” Northey had requested the overprint to be “N.F.F.” and the telegraph operator omitted one “F.” when sending the request to the Governor. Correspondence written by Northey clearly shows that he was an enthusiastic stamp collector. There is no evidence that these stamps were really needed. However the overprinting was sanctioned by the Governor of Nyasaland and the stamps were used for posting letters.

These stamps were only available for use by troops of the Nyasaland Rhodesian Field Forces. Sale of these stamps in large quantities, for dealing purposes, was forbidden. The stamps were available only from Field Post Offices of the Nyasaland Rhodesian Field Force. Most of these offices were in German East Africa. The Nyasaland Rhodesian Field Force also had FPOs in Nyasaland and in Portuguese East Africa. The stamps were not available at any civilian post office or for civilian use.

MANDATED TERRITORY OF TANGANYIKA
In 1922 the former German colony became the British Mandated Territory of Tanganyika. Separate issues of stamps were in use till 1 January 1933. From this day Tanganyika joined the East African Postal Administration and used stamps inscribed “Kenya Uganda and Tanganyika”.

REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA
On 9 December 1961 Tanganyika became an indepentant republic and commenced to issue its own stamps.

INDIAN POST OFFICE IN ZANZIBAR
An Indian post office was opened in Zanzibar in November 1868 and closed on 1 April 1869

Stamps of India were used in Zanzibar from 1 October 1875 to 10 November 1895

FRENCH POST OFFICE IN ZANZIBAR
A French post office was opened in Zanzibar in January 1889. French stamps were used initially. In 1894 specific stamps were issued for use from this post office. French stamps are also know used during 1903 and 1904. The office was closed on 31 July 1904.

GERMAN POSTAL AGENCY IN ZANZIBAR
German stamps were used by a German postal agency which was open between 27 August 1890 and 31 July 1891.

PROTECTORATE OF ZANZIBAR
In 1895 Zanzibar became a British Protectorate.

INDEPENDENT ZANZIBAR
Zanzibar received its independence and became a constitutional monarchy under the Sultan, Sayyid Jamshid bin Abdullah, on 10 December 1963.

REPUBLIC OF ZANZIBAR
The Sultan and the democratically elected government were overthrown in the Zanzibar Revolution on 12 January 1964. When the post offices opened on 14 January 1964 the stamps on sale had the portrait of the Sultan obliterated by a manuscript cross. On 17 January 1964 stamps were issued which had been handstamped “JAMHURI 1964”

All Zanzibar stamps were withdrawn from post office from 1 January 1968 and were replaced by Tanzania stamps. Zanzibar stamps remained valid for use in Zanzibar for a short time.

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA AND ZANZIBAR
The United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar was formed on 26 April 1964

UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA
On 29 October 1964 the republic was renamed as Tanzania

1965 FDC with stamp showing the skull of Zinjanthropus and the excavations in Olduvai Gorge addressed to Mr & Mrs Leakey

Later issues

In 1922, the government issued a series of 19 stamps inscribed “TANGANYIKA“, featuring the head of a giraffe, denominated in cents, shillings and pounds (100 cents to a shilling, 20 shillings to a pound), with several colour changes in 1925.

This was followed in 1927 by a second series of 16 values in a more conventional design with a profile of King George V and inscribed “MANDATED TERRITORY OF TANGANYIKA“.

In 1927, Tanganyika entered the Customs Union of Kenya and Uganda, as well as the East African Postal Union. Between 1935 and 1961, stamps of the combined postal administration (East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration) known as “Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika” were in use.

Independence

Shortly after independence in 1961, the new state of Tanganyika issued a series of commemorative stamps inscribed “TANGANYIKA“.

This was followed by a final commemorative issue on December 9, 1962, with four stamps inscribed “JAMHURI YA TANGANYIKA” to commemorate the foundation of the republic.

Tanganyika ceased to exist as a nation in 1964, when it was loosely united with Zanzibar, to form the nation of Tanzania. Stamps of the combined postal administration remained valid until well after the formation of Tanzania

KUT Independent

1) Kenya

A modern stamp of Kenya.

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Kenya.

First stamps

The first stamps of independent Kenya were issued on 12 December 1963. Before that the territory used the stamps of Kenya and Uganda and Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika

2) Uganda

A 1965 stamp of Uganda.

This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of Uganda.

Uganda is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, which is also bordered by Kenya and Tanzania.

First stamps

The first stamps of independent Uganda were issued on 9 October 1962. Before that the territory used the stamps of Kenya and Uganda and Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika

3)TANGANYIKA (TANZANIA)

Tanzania 1965 cover

Postage stamps and postal history of Tanzania(before Tanganyika)

10-cent flag, 1965.

1-shilling stamp of 1965, used at Shinyanga probably in 1968. Note that the postmark still gives “Tanganyika” as country name.

5-shilling stamp of 1980 depicting lion and cubs, used in 1985.

The story of the postage stamps and postal history of Tanzania begins with German East Africa, which was occupied by British forces during World War I. After the war, the territory was named Tanganyika and issued stamps under that name until after a union with Zanzibar in 1964.

First stamps

The first issue of Tanzania proper was a set of four commemorative stamps marking the union, issued 7 July 1964. Inscribed “UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANGANYIKA & ZANZIBAR”, two values depict a map of the coast from Tanga to Dar-es-Salaam along with Zanzibar and Pemba, while other two show hands holding a torch and spear.

Later issues

The first definitive series was issued 9 December 1965, and consisted of a set of 14 values ranging from 5 cents to 20 shillings, depicting a variety of scenes, symbols, and wildlife.

The stamps of Tanzania were also valid in Kenya and Uganda (until 1976), and so Tanzania did not typically issue its own commemoratives. A definitives series issued 9 December 1967 featured various fish, and series of 15 stamps from 3 December 1973 depicted butterflies. Four of these values were surcharged 17 November 1975.

In 1976 and 1977, Tanzania issued eight commemorative sets that shared design with the stamps of Kenya, and after that it issued its own designs.

Recent stamps

Stamp-issuing policy was relatively restrained in the 1980s, with about 7-8 special issues each year, typically of four stamps each, and a definitive series of mammals in 1980, but by the end of the decade the postal administration had begun putting out large numbers of issues aimed solely at stamp collectors, with averages of over 100 types annually. Tanzania is a client of the Inter-Governmental Philatelic Corporation

IIKenya Uganda Tanganyika Historic

1.Kenya

Kenyan prehistory

Recent finds near Lake Turkana indicate that hominids like Australopithecus anamensis lived in the area which is now Kenya from around 4.1 million years ago.^[1] More recently, discoveries in the Tugen Hills dated to approximately 6 million years ago precipitated the naming of a new species, the Orrorin tugenensis.

Early Kenyan civilizations

Cushitic language-speaking people from northern Africa moved into the area that is now Kenya beginning around 2000 BCE.^[2] Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the 1st century CE (Common Era). Kenya’s proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited trade and later colonization. Between the first and the fifth centuries CE, Greek merchants from Egypt had some stake in the trade.^[3] About 500 CE, traders from the Persian Gulf, southern India and Indonesia made contact with East Africa.^[4] Trade led to establishment of commercial posts.^[5] Eventually, these commercial posts became Arab and Persian city-states along the coast. By the 8th century these city-states tended to have rulers that had accepted Islam.^[6] Muslim traders had little incentive to go beyond the coast into the interior of Africa. The goods they sought—gold from the mines of Rhodesia, ivory, slaves, tortoise shell and rhinoceros horn—could more conveniently be gathered by local people in the interior and sold to the traders at the coasts during seasonal markets.^[7] During the first millennium CE, Nilotic and Bantu peoples moved into the region, and the latter now comprise three-quarters of Kenya’s population. Swahili, a Bantu language with many Arabic loan words, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples.^[8] A Swahili culture developed in the towns, notably Pate, Malindi, and Mombasa.

The Portuguese arrived in 1498, with a powerful navy. The goal was not settlement but the establishment of naval bases that would give Portugal control of the Indian Ocean. After decades of small-scale conflict the Portuguese were defeated in Kenya by Arabs from Oman. Under Seyyid Said, the Omani sultan who moved his capital to Zanzibar in the early 19th century, the Arabs created long-distance trade routes into the interior. The dry reaches of the north were lightly inhabited by seminomadic pastoralists. In the south, pastoralists and cultivators bartered goods and competed for land as long-distance caravan routes linked them to the Kenya coast on the east and the kingdoms of Uganda on the west. Arab, Shirazi, and coastal African cultures produced an Islamic Swahili people trading in a variety of up-country commodities, including slaves.^[9]

Colonial history

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to explore the region of current-day Kenya, Vasco da Gama having visited Mombasa in 1498. Gama’s voyage was successful in reaching India and this permitted the Portuguese to trade with the Far East directly by sea, thus challenging older trading networks of mixed land and sea routes, such as the Spice trade routes that utilized the Persian Gulf, Red Sea and caravans to reach the eastern Mediterranean. The Republic of Venice had gained control over much of the trade routes between Europe and Asia. After traditional land routes to India had been closed by the Ottoman Turks, Portugal hoped to use the sea route pioneered by Gama to break the once Venetian trading monopoly. Portuguese rule in East Africa focused mainly on a coastal strip centred in Mombasa. The Portuguese presence in East Africa officially began after 1505, when flagships under the command of Don Francisco de Almeida conquered Kilwa, an island located in what is now southern Tanzania.^[10]

The Portuguese presence in East Africa served the purpose of control trade within the Indian Ocean and secure the sea routes linking Europe to Asia. Portuguese naval vessels were very disruptive to the commerce of Portugal’s enemies within the western Indian Ocean and were able to demand high tariffs on items transported through the sea given their strategic control of ports and shipping lanes. The construction of Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 was meant to solidify Portuguese hegemony in the region, but their influence was clipped by the English, Dutch and Omani Arab incursions into the region during the 17th century. The Omani Arabs posed the most direct challenge to Portuguese influence in East Africa and besieged Portuguese fortresses, openly attacked naval vessels and expelled the remaining Portuguese from the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts by 1730. By this time the Portuguese Empire had already lost its interest on the spice trade sea route because of the decreasing profitability of that business. Portuguese-ruled territories, ports and settlements remained active to the south, in Mozambique, until 1975.

Omani Arab colonization of the Kenyan and Tanzanian coasts brought the once independent city-states under closer foreign scrutiny and domination than was experienced during the Portuguese period. Like their predecessors, the Omani Arabs were primarily able only to control the coastal areas, not the interior. However, the creation of clove plantations, intensification of the slave trade and relocation of the Omani capital to Zanzibar in 1839 by Seyyid Said had the effect of consolidating the Omani power in the region. Arab governance of all the major ports along the East African coast continued until British interests aimed particularly at ending the slave trade and creation of a wage-labour system began to put pressure on Omani rule. By the late nineteenth century, the slave trade on the open seas had been completely outlawed by the British and the Omani Arabs had little ability to resist the Royal Navy’s ability to enforce the directive. The Omani presence continued in Zanzibar and Pemba until the 1964 revolution, but the official Omani Arab presence in Kenya was checked by German and British seizure of key ports and creation of crucial trade alliances with influential local leaders in the 1880s. Nevertheless, the Omani Arab legacy in East Africa is currently found through their numerous descendants found along the coast that can directly trace ancestry to Oman and are typically the wealthiest and most politically influential members of the Kenyan coastal community.^[11]

1850-1920

The first Christian mission was founded on August 25, 1846, by Dr. Johann Ludwig Krapf, a German sponsored by the Church Missionary Society of England.^[12] He established a station among the Mijikenda on the coast. He later translated the Bible into Swahili.^[11]

By 1850 European explorers had begun mapping the interior.^[13] Three developments encouraged European interest in East Africa in the fist half of the nineteenth century.^[14] First, was the emergence of the island of Zanzibar, located off the east coast of Africa.^[15] Zanzibar became a base from which trade and exploration of the African mainland could be mounted.^[16] By 1840, to protect the interests of the various nationals doing business in Zanzibar, consul offices had been opened by the British, French, Germans and Americans. In 1859, the tonnage of foreign shipping calling at Zanzibar had reached 19,000 tons.^[17] By 1879, the tonnage of this shipping had reached 89,000 tons. The second development spurring European interest in Africa was the growing European demand for products of Africa including ivory and cloves. Thirdly, British interest in East Africa was first stimulated by their desire to abolish the slave trade.^[18] Later in the century, British interest in East Africa would be stimulated by German competition, and in 1887 the Imperial British East Africa Company, a private concern, leased from Seyyid Said his mainland holdings, a 10-mile (16-km)-wide strip of land along the coast. In 1895 the British government took over and claimed the interior as far west as Lake Naivasha; it set up the East Africa Protectorate. The border was extended to Uganda in 1902, and in 1920 the enlarged protectorate, except for the original coastal strip, which remained a protectorate, became a crown colony. With the beginning of colonial rule in 1895, the Rift Valley and the surrounding Highlands became the enclave of white immigrants engaged in large-scale coffee farming dependent on mostly Kikuyu labor. This area’s fertile land has always made it the site of migration and conflict. There were no significant mineral resources—none of the gold or diamonds that attracted so many to South Africa.

Imperial Germany set up a protectorate over the Sultan of Zanzibar’s coastal possessions in 1885, followed by the arrival of Sir William Mackinnon‘s British East Africa Company (BEAC) in 1888, after the company had received a royal charter and concessionary rights to the Kenya coast from the Sultan of Zanzibar for a 50-year period. Incipient imperial rivalry was forestalled when Germany handed its coastal holdings to Britain in 1890, in exchange for German control over the coast of Tanganyika. The colonial takeover met occasionally with some strong local resistance: Waiyaki Wa Hinga, a Kikuyu chief who ruled Dagoretti who had signed a treaty with Frederick Lugard of the BEAC, having been subject to considerable harassment, burnt down Lugard’s fort in 1890. Waiyaki was abducted two years later by the British and killed.^[11]

Following severe financial difficulties of the British East Africa Company, the British government on July 1, 1895 established direct rule through the East African Protectorate, subsequently opening (1902) the fertile highlands to white settlers.

1911 map

Railways

A key to the development of Kenya’s interior was the construction, started in 1895, of a railway from Mombasa to Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, completed in 1901. This was to be the first piece of the Uganda Railway. The British government had decided, primarily for strategic reasons, to build a railway linking Mombasa with the British protectorate of Uganda. A major feat of engineering, the “Uganda railway” (that is the railway inside Kenya leading to Uganda) was completed in 1903 and was a decisive event in modernizing the area. As governor of Kenya, Sir Percy Girouard was instrumental in initiating railway extension policy that led to construction of the Nairobi-Thika and Konza-Magadi railways.^[19]

Some 32,000 workers were imported from British India to do the manual labour. Many stayed, as did most of the Indian traders and small businessmen who saw opportunity in the opening up of the interior of Kenya. Rapid economic development was seen as necessary to make the railway pay, and since the African population was accustomed to subsistence rather than export agriculture, the government decided to encourage European settlement in the fertile highlands, which had small African populations. The railway opened up the interior, not only to the European farmers, missionaries, and administrators, but also to systematic government programs to attack slavery, witchcraft, disease, and famine. The Africans saw witchcraft as a powerful influence on their lives and frequently took violent action against suspected witches. To control this aggression, the British colonial administration passed laws, beginning in 1909, which made the practice of witchcraft illegal. These laws gave the local population a legal, nonviolent way to stem the activities of witches.^[20]

By the time the railway was built, military resistance by the African population to the original British takeover had petered out. However new grievances were being generated by the process of European settlement. Governor Percy Girouard is associated with the debacle of the Second Maasai Agreement of 1911, which led to their forceful removal from the fertile Laikipia plateau to semi-arid Ngong. To make way for the Europeans (largely Britons and whites from South Africans), the Masai were restricted to the southern Loieta plains in 1913. The Kikuyu claimed some of the land reserved for Europeans and continued to feel that they had been deprived of their inheritance.

In the initial stage of colonial rule, the administration relied on traditional communicators, usually chiefs. When colonial rule was established and efficiency was sought, partly because of settler pressure, newly educated younger men were associated with old chiefs in local Native Councils.^[21]

In building the railway the British had to confront strong local opposition, especially from Koitalel Arap Samoei, a diviner and Nandi leader who prophesied that a black snake would tear through Nandi land spitting fire, which was seen later as the railway line. For ten years he fought against the builders of the railway line and train. The settlers were partly allowed in 1907 a voice in government through the Legislative Council, a European organization to which some were appointed and others elected. But since most of the powers remained in the hands of the Governor, the settlers started lobbying to transform Kenya in a Crown Colony, which meant more powers for the settlers. They obtained this goal in 1920, making the Council more representative of European settlers; but Africans were excluded from direct political participation until 1944, when the first of them was admitted in the Council.^[21]

1914-1939

Kenya became a military base for the British in the First World War (1914–1918), as efforts to subdue the German colony to the south were frustrated. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, the governors of British East Africa (as the Protectorate was generally known) and German East Africa agreed a truce in an attempt to keep the young colonies out of direct hostilities. However Lt Col Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck took command of the German military forces, determined to tie down as many British resources as possible. Completely cut off from Germany, von Lettow conducted an effective guerilla warfare campaign, living off the land, capturing British supplies, and remaining undefeated. He eventually surrendered in Zambia eleven days after the Armistice was signed in 1918. To chase von Lettow the British deployed Indian Army troops from India and then needed large numbers of porters to overcome the formidable logistics of transporting supplies far into the interior by foot. The Carrier Corps was formed and ultimately mobilised over 400,000 Africans, contributing to their long-term politicisation.^[21]

Before the war African political focus was diffuse, but after the war an immediate hardship caused by new taxes and reduced wages and new settlers threatening African land led to new movements. The experiences gained by Africans in the war coupled with the creation of the white-settler-dominated Kenya Crown Colony, gave rise to considerable political activity in the 1920s which culminated in Archdeacon Owen’s “Piny Owacho” (Voice of the People) movement and the “Young Kikuyu Association” (renamed the “East African Association”) started in 1921 by Harry Thuku (1895–1970), which gave a sense of nationalism to many Kikuyu and advocated civil disobedience. From the 1920s, the Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) focused on unifying the Kikuyu into one geographic polity, but its project was undermined by controversies over ritual tribute, land allocation, the ban on female circumcision, and support for Thuku.

Most political activity between the wars was local, and this succeeded most among the Luo of Kenya, where progressive young leaders became senior chiefs. By the later 1930s government began to intrude on ordinary Africans through marketing controls, stricter educational supervision, and land changes. Traditional chiefs became irrelevant and younger men became communicators by training in the missionary churches and civil service. Pressure on ordinary Kenyans by governments in a hurry to modernize in the 1930s to 1950s enabled the mass political parties to acquire support for “centrally” focused movements, but even these often relied on local communicators.^[22]

During the early part of the 20th century, the interior central highlands were settled by British and other European farmers, who became wealthy farming coffee and tea.^[23] By the 1930s, approximately 30,000 white settlers lived in the area and gained a political voice because of their contribution to the market economy. The area was already home to over a million members of the Kikuyu tribe, most of whom had no land claims in European terms, and lived as itinerant farmers. To protect their interests, the settlers banned the growing of coffee, introduced a hut tax, and the landless were granted less and less land in exchange for their labour. A massive exodus to the cities ensued as their ability to provide a living from the land dwindled.^[21]

Representation

Kenya became a locus of resettlement of young, upper-class British officers after the war, giving a strong aristocratic tone to the white settlers. If they had ₤1000 in assets they could get a free 1,000 acres (4 km²); the goal of the government was to speed up modernization and economic growth. They set up coffee plantations, which required expensive machinery, a stable labour force, and four years to start growing crops. The veterans did escape democracy and taxation in Britain, but they failed in their efforts to gain control of the colony. The upper-class bias in migration policy meant that whites would always be a small minority. Many of them left after independence.^[24]

Power remained concentrated in the governor’s hands; weak legislative and executive councils made up of official appointees were created in 1906. The European settlers were allowed to elect representatives to the Legislative Council in 1920, when the colony was established. The white settlers, 30,000 strong, sought “responsible government,” in which they would have a voice. They opposed similar demands by the far more numerous Indian community. The European settlers gained representation for themselves and minimized representation on the Legislative Council for Indians and Arabs. The government appointed a European to represent African interests on the Council. In the “Devonshire declaration” of 1923 the Colonial Office declared that the interests of the Africans (comprising over 95% of the population) must be paramount—achieving that goal took four decades.

Second World War

In the Second World War (1939–45) Kenya became an important British military base for successful campaigns against Italy in the Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia. The war brought money and an opportunity for military service for 98,000 men, called “askaris”. The war stimulated African nationalism. After the war, African ex-servicemen sought to maintain the socioeconomic gains they had accrued through service in the King’s African Rifles (KAR). Looking for middle-class employment and social privileges, they challenged existing relationships within the colonial state. For the most part, veterans did not participate in national politics, believing that their aspirations could best be achieved within the confines of colonial society. The social and economic connotations of KAR service, combined with the massive wartime expansion of Kenyan defense forces, created a new class of modernized Africans with distinctive characteristics and interests. These socioeconomic perceptions proved powerful after the war.^[25]

Rural trends

British officials sought to modernise Kikuyu farming in the Murang’a District 1920-45. Relying on concepts of trusteeship and scientific management, they imposed a number of changes in crop production and agrarian techniques, claiming to promote conservation and “betterment” of farming in the colonial tribal reserves. While criticized as backward by British officials and white settlers, African farming proved resilient, and Kikuyu farmers engaged in widespread resistance to the colonial state’s agrarian reforms.^[26]

Modernisation was accelerated by the Second World War. Among the Luo the larger agricultural production unit was the patriarch’s extended family, mainly divided into a special assignment team led by the patriarch, and the teams of his wives, who, together with their children, worked their own lots on a regular basis. This stage of development was no longer strictly traditional, but still largely self-sufficient with little contact with the broader market. Pressures of overpopulation and the prospects of cash crops, already in evidence by 1945, made this subsistence economic system increasingly obsolete and accelerated a movement to commercial agriculture and emigration to cities. The Limitation of Action Act in 1968 sought to modernize traditional land ownership and use; the act has produced unintended consequences, with new conflicts raised over land ownership and social status.^[27]

Political mobilisation

As a reaction to their exclusion from political representation, the Kikuyu people, the most subject to pressure by the settlers, founded in 1921 Kenya’s first African political protest movement, the Young Kikuyu Association, led by Harry Thuku. In 1944 Thuku founded and was first chairman of the multi-tribal Kenya African Study Union (KASU), which in 1946 became the Kenya African Union (KAU). It was an African nationalist organization that demanded access to white-owned land. KAU acted as a constituency association for the first black member of Kenya’s legislative council, Eliud Mathu, who had been nominated in 1944 by the governor after consulting élite African opinion. The KAU soon became dominated by the Kikuyu, the African group most affected by the European presence and the most politically active. In 1947 Jomo Kenyatta, former president of the moderate Kikuyu Central Association, became president of the more aggressive KAU to demand a greater political voice for Africans.

In response to the rising pressures the British Colonial Office broadened the membership of the Legislative Council and increased its role. By 1952 a multiracial pattern of quotas allowed for 14 European, 1 Arab, and 6 Asian elected members, together with an additional 6 African and 1 Arab member chosen by the governor. The council of ministers became the principal instrument of government in 1954.

Mau-Mau Rising

A key watershed came from 1952 to 1956, during the “Mau Mau Uprising“, an armed local movement directed principally against the colonial government and the European settlers. It was the largest and most successful such movement in British Africa, but it was not emulated by the other colonies. The protest was supported almost exclusively by the Kikuyu, despite issues of land rights and anti-European, anti-Western appeals designed to attract other groups. The Mau Mau movement was also a bitter internal struggle among the Kikuyu. Harry Thuku said in 1952, “To-day we, the Kikuyu, stand ashamed and looked upon as hopeless people in the eyes of other races and before the Government. Why? Because of the crimes perpetrated by Mau Mau and because the Kikuyu have made themselves Mau Mau.” The British killed over 4000, and the Mau Mau many more, as the assassinations and killings on all sides reflecting the ferocity of the movement and the ruthlessness with which the British suppressed it.^[28] Kenyatta denied he was a leader of the Mau Mau but was convicted at trial and was sent to prison in 1953, gaining his freedom in 1961. To support its military campaign of counter-insurgency the colonial government embarked on agrarian reforms that stripped white settlers of many of their former protections; for example, Africans were for the first time allowed to grow coffee, the major cash crop. Thuku was one of the first Kikuyu to win a coffee license, and in 1959 he became the first African board member of the Kenya Planters Coffee Union.

Constitutional debates

After the suppression of the Mau Mau rising, the British provided for the election of the six African members to the Legislative Council under a weighted franchise based on education. The new colonial constitution of 1958 increased African representation, but African nationalists began to demand a democratic franchise on the principle of “one man, one vote.” However, Europeans and Asians, because of their minority position, feared the effects of universal suffrage.

At a conference held in 1960 in London, agreement was reached between the African members and the English settlers of the New Kenya Group, led by Michael Blundell. However many whites rejected the New Kenya Group and condemned the London agreement, because it moved away from racial quotas and toward independence. Following the agreement a new African party, the Kenya African National Union (KANU), with the slogan “Uhuru,” or “Freedom,” was formed under the leadership of Kikuyu leader James S. Gichuru and labor leader Tom Mboya. Mboya was a major figure from 1951 until his death in 1969. He was praised as nonethnic or antitribal, and attacked as an instrument of Western capitalism. Mboya as General Secretary of the Kenya Federation of Labor and a leader in the Kenya African National Union before and after independence skillfully managed the tribal factor in Kenyan economic and political life to succeed as a Luo in a predominantly Kikuyu movement.^[29] A split in KANU produced the breakaway rival party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), led by R. Ngala and M. Muliro. In the elections of February 1961, KANU won 19 of the 33 African seats while KADU won 11 (twenty seats were reserved by quota for Europeans, Asians, and Arabs). Kenyatta was finally released in August and became president of KANU in October.

In 1959, nationalist leader Tom Mboya began a program, funded by Americans, of sending talented youth to the United States for higher education. There was no university in Kenya at the time, but colonial officials opposed the program anyway. The next year Senator John F. Kennedy helped fund the program, which trained some 70% of the top leaders of the new nation, including the first African woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize, environmentalist Wangari Maathai.^[30]

Lancaster House Conference held in 1963 for Kenya’s Independence.

Independence

In 1962 a KANU-KADU coalition government, including both Kenyatta and Ngala, was formed. The 1962 constitution established a bicameral legislature consisting of a 117-member House of Representatives and a 41-member Senate. The country was divided into 7 semi-autonomous regions, each with its own regional assembly. The quota principle of reserved seats for non-Africans was abandoned, and open elections were held in May 1963. KADU gained control of the assemblies in the Rift Valley, Coast, and Western regions. KANU won majorities in the Senate and House of Representatives, and in the assemblies in the Central, Eastern, and Nyanza regions.^[31] Kenya now achieved internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as its first prime minister. The British and KANU agreed, over KADU protests, to constitutional changes in October 1963 strengthening the central government. Kenya became independent on Dec. 12, 1963 (1963 Constitution of Kenya). In 1964 Kenya became a republic, and constitutional changes further centralized the government.^[32]

The British government bought out the white settlers and they mostly left Kenya. The Indian minority dominated retail business in the cities and most towns, but was deeply distrusted by the Africans. As a result 120,000 of the 176,000 Indians kept their old British passports rather than become citizens of an independent Kenya; large numbers left Kenya, most of them headed to Britain.^[32]

Kenyatta regime: 1963-1978

Once in power Kenyatta swerved from radical nationalism to conservative bourgeois politics. The plantations formerly owned by white settlers were broken up and given to farmers, with the Kikuyu the favoured recipients, along with their allies the Embu and the Meru. By 1978 most of the country’s wealth and power was in the hands of the organisation which grouped these three tribes: the Gikuyu-Embu-Meru Association (GEMA), together comprising 30% of the population. At the same time the Kikuyu, with Kenyatta’s support, spread beyond their traditional territorial homelands and repossessed lands “stolen by the whites” – even when these had previously belonged to other groups. The other groups, a 70% majority, were outraged, setting up long-term ethnic animosities.^[33]

The minority party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small tribes that had feared dominance by larger ones, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and former members joined KANU. KANU was the only party 1964-1966 when a faction broke away as the Kenya People’s Union (KPU). It was led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former vice president and Luo elder. KPU advocated a more “scientific” route to socialism—criticizing the slow progress in land redistribution and employment opportunities—as well as a realignment of foreign policy in favour of the Soviet Union. In June 1969 Tom Mboya, a Luo member of the government considered a potential successor to Kenyatta, was assassinated. Hostility between Kikuyu and Luo was heightened, and after riots broke out in Luo country KPU was banned. The government used a variety of political and economic measures to harass the KPU and its prospective and actual members. KPU branches were unable to register, KPU meetings were prevented, and civil servants and politicians suffered severe economic and political consequences for joining the KPU. Kenya thereby became a one-party state under KANU.^[34]

Ignoring his suppression of the opposition and continued factionalism within KANU the imposition of one-party rule allowed Mzee (“Old Man”) Kenyatta, who had led the country since independence, claimed he achieved “political stability.” Underlying social tensions were evident, however. Kenya’s very rapid population growth rate and considerable rural to urban migration were in large part responsible for high unemployment and disorder in the cities. There also was much resentment by blacks at the privileged economic position in the country of Asians and Europeans.

At Kenyatta’s death (August 22, 1978), Vice President Daniel arap Moi became interim President. On October 14, Moi became President formally after he was elected head of KANU and designated its sole nominee. In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state. On August 1 members of the Kenyan Air Force launched an attempted coup, which was quickly suppressed by Loyalist forces led by the Army, the General Service Unit (GSU) — paramilitary wing of the police — and later the regular police, but not without civilian casualties.^[35]

Foreign policies

Independent Kenya, although officially non-aligned, adopted a pro-Western stance.^[36] Kenya worked unsuccessfully for East African union; the proposal to unite Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda did not win approval. However, the three nations did form a loose East African Community (EAC) in 1967, that maintained the customs union and some common services that they had shared under British rule. The EAC collapsed in 1977 and it was officially dissolved in 1984. Kenya’s relations with Somalia deteriorated over the problem of Somalis in the North Eastern Province who tried to secede and were supported by Somalia. In 1968, however, Kenya and Somalia agreed to restore normal relations, and the Somali rebellion effectively ended.^[35]

Moi regime, 1978-2002

Kenyatta died in 1978 and was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi (b. 1924) who ruled as President 1978-2002. Moi, a member of the Kalenjin ethnic group, quickly consolidated his position and governed in an authoritarian and corrupt manner. By 1986, Moi had concentrated all the power – and most of its attendant economic benefits – into the hands of his Kalenjin tribe and of a handful of allies from minority groups.^[35]

In mid-1982 lower-level air force personnel backed by university students attempted a coup to oust Moi. It failed and was followed by looting of Asian-owned stores by Nairobi’s poor blacks and by attacks on Asian population. Robert Ouko, the senior Luo in Moi’s cabinet, was appointed to expose corruption at high levels but was murdered a few months later. Moi’s closest associate was implicated in Ouko’s murder; Moi dismissed him but not before his remaining Luo support had evaporated. Germany recalled its ambassador to protest the “increasing brutality” of the regime, and foreign donors pressed Moi to allow other parties, which was done in December 1991 through a constitutional amendment.^[35]

Multi-party politics

After local and foreign pressure, in December 1991, parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. The Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD) emerged as the leading opposition to KANU, and dozens of leading KANU figures switched parties. But FORD, led by Oginga Odinga (1911–1994), a Luo, and Kenneth Matiba, a Kikuyu, split into two ethnically based factions. In the first open presidential elections in a quarter century, in December 1992, Moi won with 37% of the vote, Matiba received 26%, Mwai Kibaki (of the mostly Kikuyu Democratic Party) 19%, and Odinga 18%. In the Assembly, KANU won 97 of the 188 seats at stake. Moi’s government in 1993 agreed to economic reforms long urged by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, which restored enough aid for Kenya to service its $7.5 billion foreign debt.^[35]

Obstructing the press both before and after the 1992 elections, Moi continually maintained that multiparty politics would only promote tribal conflict. His own regime depended upon exploitation of inter-group hatreds. Under Moi, the apparatus of clientage and control was underpinned by the system of powerful provincial commissioners, each with a bureaucratic hierarchy based on chiefs (and their police) that was more powerful than the elected members of parliament. Elected local councils lost most of their power, and the provincial bosses were answerable only to the central government, which in turn was dominated by the president. The emergence of mass opposition in 1990-91 and demands for constitutional reform were met by rallies against pluralism. The regime leaned on the support of the Kalenjin and incited the Maasai against the Kiyuku. Government politicians denounced the Kiyuku as traitors, obstructed their registration as voters, and threatened them with dispossession. In 1993 and after, mass evictions of Kiyuku took place, often with the direct involvement of army, police, and game rangers. Armed clashes and many casualties, including deaths, resulted.^[37]

Further liberalisation in November 1997 allowed the expansion of political parties from 11 to 26. President Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections, and his KANU Party narrowly retained its parliamentary majority.

Moi ruled using a strategic mixture of ethnic favoritism, state repression, and marginalization of opposition forces. He utilized detention and torture, looted public finances, and appropriated land and other property. Moi sponsored irregular army units that attacked the Luo, Luhya, and Kikuyu communities, and he disclaimed responsibility by assigning the violence to ethnic clashes arising from a land dispute.^[38] Beginning in 1998, Moi engaged in a carefully calculated strategy to manage the presidential succession in his and his party’s favor. Faced with the challenge of a new, multiethnic political coalition, Moi shifted the axis of the 2002 electoral contest from ethnicity to the politics of generational conflict. The strategy backfired, ripping his party wide open and resulting in its humiliating defeat of his candidate, Kenyatta’s son, in the December 2002 general elections.^[39]

21st century

Constitutionally barred from running in the December 2002 presidential elections, Moi unsuccessfully promoted Uhuru Kenyatta, the son of Kenya’s first President, as his successor. A rainbow coalition of opposition parties routed the ruling KANU party, and its leader, Moi’s former vice-president Mwai Kibaki, was elected President by a large majority.

On 27 December 2002 by 62% the voters overwhelmingly elected members of the National Rainbow Coalition (NaRC) to parliament and NaRC candidate Mwai Kibaki (1931- ) to the presidency. Voters rejected the Kenya African National Union’s (KANU) presidential candidate, Uhuru Kenyatta, the handpicked candidate of outgoing president Moi. International and local observers reported the 2002 elections to be generally more fair and less violent than those of both 1992 and 1997. His strong showing allowed Kibaki to choose a strong cabinet, to seek international support, and to balance power within the NaRC.

Kenya witnessed a spectacular economic recovery, helped by a favourable international environment. The annual rate of growth improved from -1.6% in 2002 to 2.6% by 2004, 3.4% in 2005, and 5.5% in 2007. However, social inequalities also increased; the economic benefits went disproportionately to the already well-off (especially to the Kikuyu); corruption reached new depths, matching some of the excesses of the Moi years. Social conditions deteriorated for ordinary Kenyans, who faced a growing wave of routine crime in urban areas; pitched battles between ethnic groups fighting for land; and a feud between the police and the Mungiki sect, which left over 120 people dead in May–November 2007 alone.^[33]

Once regarded as the world’s “most optimistic,” Kibaki’s regime quickly lost much of its power because it became too closely linked with the discredited Moi forces. The continuity between Kibaki and Moi set the stage for the self-destruction of Kibaki’s National Rainbow Coalition, which was dominated by Kikuyus. The western Luo and Kalenjin groups, demanding greater autonomy, backed Raila Amolo Odinga (1945- ) and his Orange Democratic Movement (ODM).^[40]

In the December 2007 elections, Odinga, the candidate of the ODM, attacked the failures of the Kibaki regime. The ODM charged the Kikuyu have grabbed everything and all the other tribes have lost; that Kibaki had betrayed his promises for change; that crime and violence were out of control, and that economic growth was not bringing any benefits to the ordinary citizen. In the December 2007 elections the ODM won a landslide for Parliament, but the counting of votes for president was rigged by the government which proclaimed Kibaki had been re-elected.

“Majimboism” was a philosophy that emerged in the 1950s, meaning federalism or regionalism in Swahili, and it was intended to protect local rights, especially regarding land ownership. Today “majimboism” is code for certain areas of the country to be reserved for specific ethnic groups, fueling the kind of ethnic cleansing that has swept the country since the election. Majimboism has always had a strong following in the Rift Valley, the epicenter of the recent violence, where many locals have long believed that their land was stolen by outsiders. The December 2007 election was in part a referendum on majimboism. It pitted today’s majimboists, represented by Odinga, who campaigned for regionalism, against Kibaki, who stood for the status quo of a highly centralized government that has delivered considerable economic growth but has repeatedly displayed the problems of too much power concentrated in too few hands — corruption, aloofness, favoritism and its flip side, marginalization. In the town of Londiani in the Rift Valley, Kikuyu traders settled decades ago. In February, 2008, hundreds of Kalenjin raiders poured down from the nearby scruffy hills and burned a Kikuyu school. Three hundred thousand members of the Kikuyu community were displaced from Rift Valley province.^[41] Kikuyus quickly took revenge, organizing into gangs armed with iron bars and table legs and hunting down Luos and Kalenjins in Kikuyu-dominated areas like Nakuru. “We are achieving our own perverse version of majimboism,” wrote one of Kenya’s leading columnists, Macharia Gaitho.^[42]

On April 17, 2008, Raila Odinga, from Orange Democratic Movement, a candidate of Kenyan presidential election, 2007 was sworn as Prime Minister of Kenya, after more than forty years of the abolition of office

Social change

Fertility decline

Between 1980 and 2000 total fertility in Kenya fell by about 40%, from some eight births per woman to around five. During the same period, fertility in Uganda declined by less than 10%. The difference was due primarily to greater contraceptive use in Kenya, though in Uganda there was also a reduction in pathological sterility. The Demographic and Health Surveys carried out every five years show that women in Kenya wanted fewer children than those in Uganda and that in Uganda there was also a greater unmet need for contraception. These differences may be attributed, in part at least, to the divergent paths of economic development followed by the two countries since independence and to the Kenya government’s active promotion of family planning, which the Uganda government did not promote until 1995.^[43]

Luo

The Luo population of the southwest had enjoyed an advantageous position during the late colonial and early independence periods of the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, particularly in terms of the prominence of its modern elite compared to those of other groups. However the Luo lost prominence due to the success of Kikuyu and related groups (Embu and Meru) in gaining and exercising political power during the Jomo Kenyatta era (1963–1978). While measurements of poverty and health by the early 2000s showed the Luo disadvantaged relative to other Kenyans, the growing presence of non-Luo in the professions reflected a dilution of Luo professionals due to the arrival of others rather than an absolute decline in the Luo numbers.^[44]

2.Uganda

History of Uganda

History of Uganda

Chronology
Early history (before 1894)
British rule (1894–1962)
Early independence (1962–71)
Under Idi Amin (1971–79)
Recent history (1979–present)
Special themes
Expulsion of Asians (1972)
History of Buganda
Military history of Uganda
Uganda–Tanzania War (1978–79)
Ugandan Bush War (1981–86)
LRA insurgency (1987–present)

Uganda before 1900

The earliest human inhabitants in a contemporary Uganda were hunter-gathers. Remnants of these people are today to be found among the pygmies in western Uganda. Between approximately 2500 to 1500 years ago, Bantu speaking populations from central and western Africa migrated and occupied most of the southern parts of the country. This culture was part of the Urewe, or early eastern Bantu cultural complex. The migrants brought with them agriculture, ironworking skills and new ideas of social and political organization, that by the fifteenth or sixteenth century resulted in the development of centralized kingdoms, including the kingdoms of Buganda, Bunyoro-Kitara and Ankole.

Nilotic people, including Luo and Ateker entered the area from the north probably beginning about AD 1000. They were cattle herders and subsistence farmers who settled mainly the northern and eastern parts of the country. Some Luo invaded the area of Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the current Omukama (ruler) of Bunyoro-Kitara in the mid second millennium AD. Luo migration proceeded until the 16th century, with some Luo settling amid Bantu people in Eastern Uganda, and proceeding to the western shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya and Tanzania. The Ateker (Karimojong and Teso peoples) settled in the north-eastern and eastern parts of the country, and some fused with the Luo in the area north of lake Kyoga.

When Arab traders and slavers moved inland from their enclaves along the Indian Ocean coast of East Africa and reached the interior of Uganda in the 1830s, they found several kingdoms with well-developed political institutions. These traders and slavers were followed in the 1860s by British explorers and abolitionists searching for the source of the Nile River and to end slavery. Protestant missionaries entered the country in 1877, followed by Catholic missionaries in 1879.

Colonial Uganda

In 1888, control of the emerging British “sphere of interest” in East Africa was assigned by royal charter to William Mackinnon‘s Imperial British East Africa Company, an arrangement strengthened in 1890 by an Anglo-German agreement confirming British dominance over Kenya and Uganda. The high cost of occupying the territory caused the company to withdraw in 1893, and its administrative functions were taken over by a British commissioner. In 1894, the Kingdom of Uganda was placed under a formal British protectorate.

Early independent Uganda

Britain granted independence to Uganda in 1962, and the first elections were held on 1 March 1961. Benedicto Kiwanuka of the Democratic Party became the first Chief Minister. Uganda became a republic the following year, maintaining its Commonwealth membership.

In succeeding years, supporters of a centralized state vied with those in favor of a loose federation and a strong role for tribally-based local kingdoms. Political maneuvering climaxed in February 1966, when Prime Minister Milton Obote suspended the constitution and assumed all government powers, removing the positions of president and vice president. In September 1967, a new constitution proclaimed Uganda a republic, gave the president even greater powers, and abolished the traditional kingdoms.

Uganda under Amin

On 25 January 1971, Obote’s government was ousted in a military coup led by armed forces commander Idi Amin Dada. Amin declared himself ‘president,’ dissolved the parliament, and amended the constitution to give himself absolute power.

Idi Amin’s eight-year rule produced economic decline, social disintegration, and massive human rights violations. The Acholi and Langi ethnic groups were particular objects of Amin’s political persecution because they had supported Obote and made up a large part of the army. In 1978, the International Commission of Jurists estimated that more than 100,000 Ugandans had been murdered during Amin’s reign of terror; some authorities place the figure as high as 300,000—a statistic cited at the end of the 2006 movie The Last King of Scotland, which chronicled part of Amin’s dictatorship.

A border altercation involving Ugandan exiles who had a camp close to the Ugandan border of Mutukula resulted into an attack by the Uganda army into Tanzania. In October 1978, Tanzanian armed forces repulsed an incursion of Amin’s troops into Tanzanian territory. The Tanzanian army, backed by Ugandan exiles waged a war of liberation against Amin’s troops and the Libyan soldiers sent to help him. On 11 April 1979, Kampala was captured, and Amin fled with his remaining forces.

Uganda since 1979

Main article: Uganda since 1979

After Amin’s removal, the Uganda National Liberation Front formed an interim government with Yusuf Lule as president and Jeremiah Lucas Opira as the Secretary General of the UNLF. This government adopted a ministerial system of administration and created a quasi-parliamentary organ known as the National Consultative Commission (NCC). The NCC and the Lule cabinet reflected widely differing political views. In June 1979, following a dispute over the extent of presidential powers, the NCC replaced Lule with Godfrey Binaisa. In a continuing dispute over the powers of the interim presidency, Binaisa was removed in May 1980. Thereafter, Uganda was ruled by a military commission chaired by Paulo Muwanga. The December 1980 elections returned the UPC to power under the leadership of President Milton Obote, with Muwanga serving as vice president. Under Obote, the security forces had one of the world’s worst human rights records. In their efforts to stamp out an insurgency led by Yoweri Museveni‘s National Resistance Army (NRA), they laid waste to a substantial section of the country, especially in the Luwero area north of Kampala.

Obote ruled until 27 July 1985, when an army brigade, composed mostly of ethnic Acholi troops and commanded by Lt. Gen. Bazilio Olara-Okello, took Kampala and proclaimed a military government. Obote fled to exile in Zambia. The new regime, headed by former defense force commander Gen. Tito Okello (no relation to Lt. Gen. Olara-Okello), opened negotiations with Museveni’s insurgent forces and pledged to improve respect for human rights, end tribal rivalry, and conduct free and fair elections. In the meantime, massive human rights violations continued as the Okello government carried out a brutal counterinsurgency in an attempt to destroy the NRA’s support.

Negotiations between the Okello government and the NRA were conducted in Nairobi in the fall of 1985, with Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi seeking a cease-fire and a coalition government in Uganda. Although agreeing in late 1985 to a cease-fire, the NRA continued fighting, and seized Kampala and the country in late January 1986, forcing Okello’s forces to flee north into Sudan. Museveni’s forces organized a government with Museveni as president.

Since assuming power, the government dominated by the political grouping created by Museveni and his followers, the National Resistance Movement (NRM or the “Movement”), has largely put an end to the human rights abuses of earlier governments, initiated substantial political liberalization and general press freedom, and instituted broad economic reforms after consultation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and donor governments.

In northern areas such as Acholiland, there has been armed resistance against the government since 1986. Acholi based rebel groups include the Uganda People’s Democratic Army and the Holy Spirit Movement. Currently, the only remaining rebel group is the Lord’s Resistance Army headed by Joseph Kony, which has carried out widespread abduction of children to serve as soldiers or sex slaves.

In 1996, Uganda was a key supporter of the overthrow of Zairean President Mobutu Sese Seko in the First Congo War in favor of rebel leader Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Between 1998 and 2003, the Ugandan army was involved in the Second Congo War in the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo and the government continues to support rebel groups such as the Movement for the Liberation of Congo and some factions of the Rally for Congolese Democracy.

In August 2005, Parliament voted to change the constitution to lift presidential term limits, allowing Museveni to run for a third term if he wishes to do so. In a referendum in July, 2005, 92.5% supported restoring multiparty politics, thereby scrapping the no-party or “movement” system. Kizza Besigye, Museveni’s political rival, returned from exile in October 2005, and was a presidential candidate for the 2006 elections. In the same month, Milton Obote died in South Africa. Museveni won the February 2006 presidential election.

In 2009, the Anti-Homosexuality Bill was proposed and under consideration.^[1] It was proposed on 13 October 2009 by Member of Parliament David Bahati and would, if enacted, broaden the criminalization of homosexuality in Uganda, including introducing the death penalty for people who have previous convictions, who are HIV-positive, or who engage in sexual acts with those under 18,^[2] introducing extradition for those engaging in same-sex sexual relations outside Uganda, and penalising individuals, companies, media organizations, or NGOs who support LGBT rights.

3.Tanganyika

Tanganyika(now Tanzania)

Republic of Tanganyika

←

1961–1964

→

Flag of the Republic of Tanganyika

Anthem
Mungu ibariki Afrika

Capital

Dar es Salaam

Language(s)

Swahili
English

Government

Republic

President

– 1961-1964

Julius Nyerere

History

– Independence

9 December 1961

– Unification with Zanzibar

26 April 1964

Flag of Deutsch-Ostafrika (1885-1919)

Flag of Tanganyika (1919-1961)

Flag of the Republic of Tanganyika 1961–64

The nation Tanzania consists of the mainland part, formerly called Tanganyika, and the islands of Zanzibar. Note that since 1996, the capital has been at Dodoma.

Tanganyika was an East African territory lying between the Indian Ocean and the largest of the African great lakes: Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika. From 9 December 1961 to 26 April 1964 it was also an independent state. Once part of the colony of German East Africa (German: Deutsch-Ostafrika), it comprised today’s Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania with the exclusion of Zanzibar. After World War I the parts that are today’s Rwanda and Burundi became a League of Nations mandate governed by Belgium. The major part, however, came under British military rule and was transferred to Britain under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. This was confirmed by a League of Nations Mandate in 1922, later becoming a United Nations Trust Territory. Britain changed the name to the Tanganyika Territory.

On 9 December 1961 Tanganyika became independent as a Commonwealth Realm, and on 9 December 1962 it became the Republic of Tanganyika within the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1964, it joined with the islands of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, later in the year changed to the United Republic of Tanzania.

Although Tanganyika still exists within Tanzania, the name is no longer used formally for the territory. These days the name Tanganyika is used almost exclusively to refer to the lake.

Table of Contents

1	History
2	See also
3	References
4	External links

History

The name ‘Tanganyika’ is derived from the Swahili words tanga meaning ‘sail’ and nyika meaning an ‘uninhabited plain’ or ‘wilderness’. At its simplest it might therefore be understood as a description of the lake — ‘sail in the wilderness’.^[1]

As European explorers and colonialists penetrated the African interior from Zanzibar in the second half of the 19th century, to Europeans Tanganyika came to mean, informally, the country around the lake, chiefly on the eastern side. In 1885 Germany declared that it intended to establish a protectorate, named German East Africa in the area, under the leadership of Carl Peters. When the Sultan of Zanzibar objected, German warships threatened to bombard his palace. Britain and Germany then agreed to divide the mainland into spheres of influence, and the Sultan was forced to acquiesce. After charges of brutality in the repression of the Maji Maji Rebellion of 1905, and reform under the leadership of Bernhard Dernburg in 1907, the colony became a model of colonial efficiency and commanded extraordinary loyalty among the indigenous peoples during the First World War. The German educational programme for native Africans, including elementary, secondary and vocational schools, was particularly notable, with standards unmatched elsewhere in tropical Africa^[2]^[3].

After the defeat of Germany in 1918 in World War I, under the Treaty of Versailles German East Africa was divided among the victorious powers, with the largest segment being transferred to British control (except Rwanda and Burundi which went to Belgium, and the small Kionga Triangle which went to Portuguese Mozambique). A new name was needed, and Tanganyika was adopted by the British for all of its part of the territory of German East Africa.

In 1927, Tanganyika entered the Customs Union of Kenya and Uganda, as well as the East African Postal Union, later the East African Posts and Telecommunications Administration. Cooperation expanded with those countries in a number of ways, leading to the establishment of the East African High Commission (1948–1961) and the East African Common Services Organisation (1961–1967), forerunners of the East African Community. The country held its first elections in 1958 and 1959. The following year it was granted internal self-government and fresh elections were held. Both elections were won by the Tanganyika African National Union, which led the country to independence in December 1961. The following year a presidential election was held, with TANU leader Julius Nyerere emerging victorious.

Tanganyika ceased to exist as a nation in 1964, when it was loosely united with Zanzibar, to form the nation of Tanzania.^[4]

the end @ copyright Dr Iwan Suwandy 2010

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Posted in africa collections exhibition

The Microfilming Of Mail During World War II Exhibition

Posted on January 10, 2011 | 2 comments

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

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WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

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AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

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THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Microfilming Of Mail During WW II Collections Exhibition

Frame One:

Introductions

1.The microfilming of Mail introduced in the France,Prussian war ,and also in another countries like British & USA, was revived in Worl War II.

2.History of microfiolming mail

Microfilm first saw military use during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris, the only way for the provincial government in Tours to communicate with Paris was by pigeon post. As the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from Paris before the siege, clerks in Tours photographed paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by magic lantern while clerks copied the dispatches onto paper.^[9]

Additionally, the US Victory Mail(V-Mail)

, and the British “Airgraph” system it was based on

, were used for delivering mail between those at home and troops serving overseas during World War II. The systems worked by photographing large amounts of censored mail reduced to thumb-nail size onto reels of microfilm, which weighed much less than the originals would have. The film reels were shipped by priority air freight to and from the home fronts, sent to their prescribed destinations for enlarging at receiving stations near the recipients, and printed out on lightweight photo paper. These facsimiles of the letter-sheets were reproduced about one-quarter the original size and the miniature mails were then delivered to the addressee. Use of these microfilm systems saved significant volumes of cargo capacity needed for vital war supplies. An additional benefit was that the small, light weight reels of microfilm were almost always transported by air, and as such were much quicker than any surface mail services.

3. The Photostat made from the microfilm

and the spesific window enveloped(Airgraph) envelope in which the message was formarded to the adress ,it was sent from IBOD government or military field headquater to the field commander,soldier or to their family.

4. Type of Microfilming Mail

Microfilm Models: Precursors of V-Mail

V-Mail microfilm technology was a product of years of discovery and experimentation. Soon after the advent of photography in the mid 1830s, John Benjamin (J.B.) Dancer pioneered the first microphotographs by mounting images on microscope slides. The process, refined through the years with the advancement of technology and microphotography, was capable of shrinking regular documents down to a smaller size which allowed for easy transportation and cataloging. Tiny microfilmed messages were lightweight, and were processed quickly. Because of these characteristics, microphotography became a good candidate for a partnership with wartime mail as early as the 1870s.

The French Pigeon Post

In July 1870 the longtime border disputes between France and its rival Prussia erupted into the Franco-Prussian War. In September of 1871 the conflict escalated and the Prussian army’s siege of the capital effectively cut off the mail between Paris and its surrounding cities. Under these strained conditions, members of the pigeon fanciers’ society L’Esperance (“Hope”) volunteered carrier pigeons to deliver the mail. Initially, government and postal officials were skeptical of the small birds. Nevertheless, as the siege dragged on, it was apparent that a way to get the mail through the blockade was through the air.

The tiny avian messengers did not fly into Paris directly but rather were carried to the city limits by hot air balloon. Balloons seen over Paris were vulnerable to Prussian gunfire and it was safer to launch the balloons with their winged passengers outside of the city boundaries.

Several stations were set up throughout the surrounding French countryside to house the birds and their handlers. These sites also served as relay stations to help the balloons maintain communication with each other. Once a balloon was within safe range of the city, the handler would release the pigeon and the balloon would fly back to safety.

The birds had the difficult task of maneuvering around the perils of the war-torn city. The winged messengers carried the microphotographed letters inside small, quill containers. The successfully delivered microfilm was enlarged for transcription and reading.

The British Airgraph Service

In January 1941 Great Britain partnered with the Eastman Kodak Company to launch the Airgraph service. The Airgraph was created to provide a faster mail service to British forces in the Middle East and Africa. Before the Airgraph was inaugurated, ordinary letters had to be transported by ship. For a letter to travel from Cairo, Egypt to the United Kingdom took an estimated time of 24 to 30 days. The Airgraph reduced that traveling time in half because the microfilmed letters could travel by air instead of by sea. Approximately 4,500 negatives of microfilmed letters weighed just one pound, which left more room for shipping ammunition, blood plasma, and clothing.

Although V-Mail was modeled after Airgraph service with U.S. adaptations to the British format. The size of the Airgraph letter sheet stationery was expanded from 8 x 11 inches to 8 1/2” x 11” and the photographic-print facsimile was also enlarged from 4” x 5” to 4 1/2” x 5 1/2”. Even though these changes were seemingly small, these few extra inches gave the writer more space and helped make the tiny letters easier to read. See the 3rd and 4th images for examples of an Airgraph and a V-mail blank, respectively.

V-Mail forms also had a different address section which made for a speedier delivery. Airgraphs provided a panel for the recipient’s address and the sender was instructed to include his contact information just above the body of his letter. V-Mail stationery had two distinct boxes that separated the sender’s information from the receiver’s. This change not only cut back on misaddressed mail but also made letters easier to trace back to the original sender

5.If the collectors had the same collections please show us to made this exhibition more complete,thanks very much for show us your unusual aeroragraph microfilm of mail collections.

5. During WWII ,in 1943 starting difficult to sent airmails, and the airmail sent by ship with postmark NO AIRMAILS and we could look some pictures of the war situation in 1943 ,many areas were under Germany Hitler occupations, all mail were sencored with Nazi censored stamped, please look some of my collections from this time ,from Germany Occupations Franch area, British Prisoner of War in Germany Camp,and also other POW camps letters. and at least only microfilming mails exist until 1944 when the Allied Armed Forces starting to liberating Euro Area from Germany Hitler Occupations,

6.May be some one can told us how to sent the microfiolming mails, I have heard from senior collectors that the microfilm sent by pigeon bird(burung merpati),please comment from senior collectors .

Jakarta 2011

the blog founder

Dr Iwan Suwandy

Frame Two:

No Airmail During WW II in 1943 (Dr Iwan Private Collections)

Frame Three:

The Microfilming Of Mail (AIRGRAPH)During WWII In 1943(Dr Iwan Private Collections)

Frame Four:

The microform (Microfilming Mail) Historic collections

Digital scanning of microfilm (see Digital conversion below).

Microforms are any form, either films or paper, containing microreproductions^[1] of documents for transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced about 25 times from the original document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used.

All microform images may be provided as positives or negatives, more often the latter.

Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), aperture cards and microfiche (flat sheets). Microcards, a format no longer produced, were similar to microfiche, but printed on cardboard rather than photographic film.

History

Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce micro-photographs, in 1839. He achieved a reduction ratio of 160:1. Dancer perfected his reduction procedures with Frederick Scott Archer’s wet collodion process, developed in 1850–51, but he dismissed his decades-long work on micro-photographs as a personal hobby, and did not document his procedures. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, which called the process “somewhat trifling and childish.”^[2]

Microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by James Glaisher, an astronomer, and in 1853 by John Herschel. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher. He called it “the most remarkable discovery of modern times,” and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents.^[3]

The developments in microphotography continued through the next decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was seized by a wider audience. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a compact solution to engineers’ unwieldy but frequently consulted materials. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in a square inch, and that a one foot cube could contain 1.5 million volumes.^[4]

In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the livre microphotographique as a way to alleviate the cost and space limitations imposed by the codex format.^[5] Otlet’s overarching goal was to create a World Center Library of Juridical, Social and Cultural Documentation, and he saw microfiche as way to offer a stable and durable format that was inexpensive, easy to use, easy to reproduce, and extremely compact. In 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons.^[6]

In the decade of the 1920s microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting. New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his “Checkograph” machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthy’s invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its “Recordak” division.^[7]

Between 1927 and 1935, the Library of Congress microfilmed more than three million pages of books and manuscripts in the British Library;^[8] in 1929 the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies joined to create a Joint Committee on Materials Research, which looked closely at microform’s potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials; in 1933, Charles C. Peters developed a method to microformat dissertations; in 1934 the United States National Agriculture Library implemented the first microform print-on-demand service, which was quickly followed by a similar commercial concern, Science Service.^[4]

In 1935, Kodak’s Recordak division began filming and publishing The New York Times on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm, ushering in the era of newspaper preservation on film.^[7] This method of information storage received the sanction of the American Library Association at it annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms.

Harvard University Library was the first major institution to realize the potential of microfilm to preserved broadsheets printed on high-acid newsprint and it launched its “Foreign Newspaper Project” to preserve such ephemeral publications in 1938.^[7] Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a storage medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope, and filmslides.

The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International (UMI) was established by Eugene Power.^[7] For the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of ProQuest Information and Learning in 2001.

Uses

Systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information.

For example, when airlines demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business, for example), they normally specified punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into the card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings.

Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for the old formats.

Additionally, the US Victory Mail, and the British “Airgraph” system it was based on, were used for delivering mail between those at home and troops serving overseas during World War II. The systems worked by photographing large amounts of censored mail reduced to thumb-nail size onto reels of microfilm, which weighed much less than the originals would have. The film reels were shipped by priority air freight to and from the home fronts, sent to their prescribed destinations for enlarging at receiving stations near the recipients, and printed out on lightweight photo paper. These facsimiles of the letter-sheets were reproduced about one-quarter the original size and the miniature mails were then delivered to the addressee. Use of these microfilm systems saved significant volumes of cargo capacity needed for vital war supplies. An additional benefit was that the small, light weight reels of microfilm were almost always transported by air, and as such were much quicker than any surface mail services.Please look the collections I have found uring google explorations below:

World War II – Prisoners of War – Stalag Luft I

A collection of stories, photos, art and information on Stalag Luft I

V-MailOctober 24, 1944Dearest Son, As no mail seems to be coming through to us from you (your last letter we received two weeks ago), I’m sure you must be having some trouble so I’m going to try V-Mail. Martha hasn’t heard from Emory in over ten days but today a V-Mail letter to Lola came in – as slow as this type letter is, it must be better than airmail, until this condition gets better what ever the condition, I don’t know. Daddy has written you every day for 4 straight weeks now. I write once a week, as I told you in my last letter, I can’t think of a thing to write because he writes it all. Every thing I hear I tell him so he can have something to say. He is proud of his record of letters to you. Be sure to brag on him, etc. Lewis Mitchell is here and looks great in his uniform. I heard some one go in the other door and whistle your whistle – boy my heart did flip-flops. I rushed over and there stood “Brer”. No one’s here for him to play around with so it’s going to be pretty lonesome. Jeannie and Mr. White haven’t heard from Hugh in over a month. I feel so sorry for them. They have asked the Red Cross to get in touch with him and find out what’s the matter. Sister and Ben may come home to live. Will write more later.

Love,

Mother

P.S. Am praying for your safe return each night.

Here’s Brer Mitchell:

Hello Dick,

Hold everything down until my gang and I get over there. Best of luck too.

Brer

Scan of the V-mail letter

What is V- Mail?

During the latter years of World War II, V-Mail became a popular way to correspond with a loved one serving overseas. V-mail consisted of miniaturized messages reproduced by microphotography from 16mm film. The system of microfilming letters was based on the use of special V-mail letter-sheets, which were a combination of letter and envelope. The letter-sheets were constructed and gummed so as to fold into a uniform and distinctively marked envelope. The user wrote the message in the limited space provided, added the name and address of the recipient, folded the form, affixed postage, if necessary, and mailed the letter. The V-mail correspondence was then reduced to thumb-nail size on microfilm. The rolls of film were flown across the world and then developed at destinations closest to the recipient’s position. Finally, individual facsimiles of the V-mail letter-sheets, which were about one-quarter the original size, were then mailed and delivered to the addressee.The development of the V-Mail system reduced the time it took a soldier to receive a letter by a month – from six weeks by boat to twelve days or less by air. However, the main advantage of V-Mail was its compact nature. Reduction in the size and weight of the letters translated into more space for crucial military supplies on cargo planes. One roll of film weighing about 7 ounces could hold over 1,500 letters. Putting that another way, two pounds of microfilm replaced 100 pounds of letters! Over a billion letters (556,513,795 pieces of V-mail were sent from the U.S. to military post offices and over 510 million pieces were received from military personnel abroad) were sent via V-mail between 1942 and 1945. Think of it as the earliest form of e-mail. Americans on the home-front were encouraged by the government and private businesses to use V-Mail. Letters from home were compared to “a five minute furlough,” and advertisements that instructed how, when, and what to write in a V-Mail reached a peak in 1944. Letters were to be cheerful, short, and frequent. V-Mail made it possible for servicemen halfway across the world to hear news from home on a weekly basis.


A package of V-Mail letters	Outside of the letter		Inside of the letter

	Instructions for sending V-Mail

Example of V-mail letter on sending side		Example of V-mail letter on receiving side

Libraries began using microfilm in the mid-20th century as a preservation strategy for deteriorating newspaper collections. Books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased. Microfilming was also a space-saving measure. In his 1945 book, “The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library,” Fremont Rider calculated that research libraries were doubling in space every sixteen years. His suggested solution was microfilming, specifically with his invention, the microcard. Once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly expanding collections. The microcard was superseded by microfiche. By the 1960s, microfilming had become standard policy.

Visa and National City use microfilm to store bank statements, and produce microfilm, from digital records, that is placed into storage.

Advantages

The medium has numerous advantages:

It enables libraries to greatly expand access to collections without putting rare, fragile, or valuable items at risk of theft or damage.
It is compact, with far smaller storage costs than paper documents. Normally 98 document size pages fit on one fiche, reducing to about 0.25% original material. When compared to filing paper, microforms can reduce space storage requirements by up to 95%.^[10]
It is cheaper to distribute than paper copy. Most microfiche services get a bulk discount on reproduction rights, and have lower reproduction and carriage costs than a comparable amount of printed paper.
It is a stable archival form when properly processed and stored. Preservation standard microfilms use the silver halide process, creating silver images in hard gelatin emulsion on a polyester base. With appropriate storage conditions, this film has a life expectancy of 500 years.^[11] Unfortunately, in tropical climates with high humidity, fungus eats the gelatin used to bind the silver halide. Thus, diazo-based systems with lower archival lives (20 years) which have polyester or epoxy surfaces are used.
Since it is analog (an actual image of the original data), it is easy to view. Unlike digital media, the format requires no software to decode the data stored thereon. It is instantly comprehensible to persons literate in the language; the only equipment that is needed is a simple magnifying glass. This eliminates the problem of software obsolescence.
It is virtually impossible to mutilate. Users cannot tear pages from or deface microforms.
It has low intrinsic value and does not attract thieves. Few heavily-used microform collections suffer any losses due to theft.
Prints from microfilm are accepted in legal proceedings as substitutes for original documents.

Disadvantages

The principal disadvantage of microforms is that the image is (usually) too small to read with the naked eye. Libraries must use either special readers that project full-size images on a ground-glass or frosted acrylic screen or a modern Viewer/Scanner which converts the image from analog to digital -see section below on Digital Conversion.
Reader machines used to view microfilm are often difficult to use, requiring users to carefully wind and rewind until they have arrived at the point where the data they are looking for is stored.
Photographic illustrations reproduce poorly in microform format, with loss of clarity and halftones. However the latest electronic digital viewer/scanners have the ability to scan in gray shade which greatly increases the quality of photographs, but they still can not duplicate the nuances of true gray shade photographs -due to the inherent bi-tonal nature of microfilm.
Reader-printers are not always available, limiting the user’s ability to make copies for their own purposes. Conventional photocopy machines cannot be used.^[12]
Color microform is extremely expensive, thus discouraging most libraries supplying color films. Color photographic dyes also tend to degrade over the long term. This results in the loss of information, as color materials are usually photographed using black and white film.^[12]
When stored in the highest-density drawers, it is easy to misfile a fiche, which is thereafter unavailable. As a result, some libraries store microfiche in a restricted area and retrieve it on demand. Some fiche services use lower-density drawers with labeled pockets for each card.
Like all analog media formats, microfiche is lacking in features enjoyed by users of digital media. Analog copies degrade with each generation, while digital copies have much higher copying fidelity. Digital data can also be indexed and searched easily.
Reading microfilms on a machine for some time may cause headache and/or eyestrain.

Readers and printers

Desktop readers are boxes with a translucent screen at the front on to which is projected an image from a microform. They have suitable fittings for whatever microform is in use. They may offer a choice of magnifications. They usually have motors to advance and rewind film. When coding blips are recorded on the film a reader is used that can read the blips to find any required image.

Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying; when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen. For example, with M. de Saint Rat, Atherton Seidell developed a simple, inexpensive ($2.00 in 1950), monocular microfilm viewing device, known as the “Seidell viewer,” that was sold during the 1940s and 1950s.^[13]

A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a photocopier. The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it is called a reader printer. Microform printers can accept positive or negative films and positive or negative images on paper. New machines allow the user to scan a microform image and save it as a digital file -see the section below on Digital conversion.

Media

Microfilm roll

Aperture card with hollerith info

A duped jacket fiche

Flat film: 105 x 148 mm flat film is used for micro images of very large engineering drawings. These may carry a title photographed or written along one edge. Typical reduction is about 20, representing a drawing that is 2.00 x 2.80 metres, that is 79 x 110 in. These films are stored as microfiche.

Microfilm: 16 mm or 35 mm film to motion picture standard is used, usually unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes. The standard lengths for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft)for 35mm rolls, and 100 ft, 130 ft and 215 feet for 16mm rolls. One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2,400 images of letter sized images as a single stream of micro images along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10,000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film.

Aperture cards: Aperture cards are Hollerith cards into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve, or secured over the aperture by an adhesive tape. They are used for engineering drawings, for all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.

Microfiche: A microfiche is a flat film 105 x 148 mm in size, that is ISO A6. It carries a matrix of micro images. All microfiche are read with text parallel to the long side of the fiche. Frames may be landscape or portrait. Along the top of the fiche a title may be recorded for visual identification. The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 x 14 mm. Office size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25. Microfiche are stored in open top envelopes which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards, or fitted into pockets in purpose made books.

Ultrafiche: (also ‘ultramicrofiche’) is an exceptionally compact version of a microfiche or microfilm, storing analog data at much higher densities. Ultrafiche can be created directly from computers using appropriate peripherals. They are typically used for storing data gathered from extremely data-intensive operations such as remote sensing.

Image creation

To create microform media, a planetary camera is mounted with the vertical axis above a copy that is stationary during exposure. High volume output is possible with a rotary camera which moves the copy smoothly through the camera to expose film which moves with the reduced image. Alternatively, it may be produced by computers, i.e. COM (computer output microfilm).

Film

Normally microfilming uses high resolution panchromatic monochrome stock. Positive color film giving good reproduction and high resolution can also be used. Roll film is provided 16, 35 and 105 mm wide in lengths of 30 metres (100 ft) and longer, and is usually unperforated. Roll film is developed, fixed and washed by continuous processors.

Sheet film is supplied in ISO A6 size. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to the camera.

Early cut sheet microforms and microfilms (to the 1930s) were printed on nitrate film, which poses high risks to their holding institutions, as nitrate film is explosive and flammable. From the late 1930s to the 1980s, microfilms were usually printed on a cellulose acetate base, which is prone to tears, vinegar syndrome, and redox blemishes. Vinegar syndrome is the result of chemical decay and produces “buckling and shrinking, embrittlement, and bubbling”.^[14] Redox blemishes are yellow, orange or red spots 15–150 micrometres in diameter created by oxidative attacks on the film, and are largely due to poor storage conditions.^[15]

Cameras

Flat film

The simplest microfilm camera that is still in use is a rail mounted structure at the top of which is a bellows camera for 105 x 148 mm film. A frame or copy board holds the original drawing vertical. The camera has a horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the copy. The structure may be moved horizontally on rails.

In a darkroom a single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film.

Roll film

For engineering drawings a freestanding open steel structure is often provided. A camera may be moved vertically on a track. Drawings are placed on a large table for filming, with centres under the lens. Fixed lights illuminate the copy. These cameras are often over 3 metres (10 feet) high. These cameras accept roll film stock of 35 or 16 mm.

For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of the office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses.

Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching.

Flow roll film cameras

A camera is built into a box. In some versions this is for bench top use, other versions are portable. The operator maintains a stack of material to be filmed in a tray, the camera automatically takes one document after another for advancement through the machine. The camera lens sees the documents as they pass a slot. Film behind the lens advances exactly with the image.

Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips.

Microfiche camera

All microfiche cameras are planetary with a step and repeat mechanism to advance the film after each exposure. The simpler versions use a dark slide loaded by the operator in a dark room; after exposure the film is individually processed, which may be by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Cameras for high output are loaded with a roll of 105 mm film. The exposed film is developed as a roll; this is sometimes cut to individual fiche after processing or kept in roll form for duplication.

Computer Output Microfilm

Equipment is available that accepts a data stream from a mainframe computer. This exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. Because of the source one run may represent many thousands of pages.

Within the equipment character images are made by a light source; this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll.

Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts a stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards.

Duplication

All regular microfilm copying involves contact exposure under pressure. Then the film is processed to provide a permanent image. Hand copying of a single fiche or aperture card involves exposure over a light box and then individually processing the film. Roll films are contact exposed via motor, either round a glass cylinder or through a vacuum, under a controlled light source. Processing may be in the same machine or separately.

Silver halide film is a slow version of camera film with a robust top coat. It is suitable for prints or for use as an intermediate from which further prints may be produced. The result is a negative copy. Preservation standards require a master negative, a duplicate negative, and a service copy (positive). Master negatives are kept in deep storage, and duplicate negatives are used to create service copies, which are the copies available to researchers. This multi-generational structure ensures the preservation of the master negative.

Diazo-sensitised film for dye coupling in ammonia gives blue or black dye positive copies. The black image film can be used for further copying.

Vesicular film is sensitised with a diazo dye, which after exposure is developed by heat. Where light has come to the film remains clear, in the areas under the dark image the diazo compound is destroyed quickly, releasing millions of minute bubbles of nitrogen into the film. This produces an image that diffuses light. It produces a good black appearance in a reader, but it cannot be used for further copying.

Modern microfilming standards require that a master set of films be produced and set aside for safe storage, used only to make service copies. When service copies get lost or damaged, another set can be produced from the masters, thus reducing the image degradation that results from making copies of copies.

Format conversion

These conversions may be applied to camera output or to release copies. Single microfiche are cut from rolls of 105 mm film. A bench top device is available that enables an operator to cut exposed frames of roll film and fit these into ready made aperture cards.

Transparent jackets are made A5 size each with 6 pockets into which strips of 16 mm film may be inserted (or fewer pockets for 35 mm strips), so creating microfiche jackets or jacketed microfiche. Equipment allows an operator to insert strips from a roll of film. This is particularly useful as frames may be added to a fiche at any time. The pockets are made using a thin film so that duplicates may be made from the assembled fiche.

Digital conversion

Another type of conversion is microform to digital. This is done using an optical scanner that projects the film onto a CCD array and captures it in a raw digital format. Until recently, since the different types of microform are dissimilar in shape and size, the scanners were usually able to handle only one type of microform at a time. There are some scanners that have the possibility of swapping modules for the different microform types and the latest viewer/scanner can accept any microform (roll, fiche, opaque cards, fiche,and/or aperture cards). Software (normally on the scanner itself, but more recently in an attached PC) is then used to convert the raw capture into a standard image format for archival.

The physical condition of microfilm greatly impacts the quality of the digitized copy. Microfilm with a cellulose acetate base (popular through the 1970s) is frequently subject to vinegar syndrome, redox blemishes, and tears, and even preservation standard silver halide film on a polyester base can be subject to silvering and degradation of the emulsion—all issues which affect the quality of the scanned image.

Digitizing microfilm can be inexpensive when automated scanners are employed. The Utah Digital Newspapers Program has found that, with automated equipment, scanning can be performed at $0.15 per page.^[16] Recent additions to the digital scanner field have brought the cost of scanning down substantially so that when large projects are scanned (millions of pages) the price per scan can be pennies.

Modern microform scanners utilize 8 bit gray shade scanning arrays and are thus able to provide quite high quality scans in a wealth of different digital formats (CCITT Group IV which is compressed black & white -bitonal, JPG or JPEG which is gray or color compression, bitmaps which are not compressed, or a number of other (some proprietary) formats such as PDF, LZW, GIF, etc.). These modern scanners are also able to scan at “Archival” resolution up to 600 dpi.

For the resulting files to be useful, they must be organized in some way. This can be accomplished in a variety of different ways, dependent on the source media and the desired usage. In this regard, aperture cards with Hollerith information are probably the easiest since image data can be extracted from the card itself if the scanner supports it. Some types of microfilm will contain a counter next to the images, these can be referenced to an already existing database. Other microfilm reels will have a ‘blip’ system: small marks next to the images of varying lengths used to indicate document hierarchy (longest: root, long: branch, short: leaf). If the scanner is able to capture and process these then the image files can be arranged in the same manner. Optical character recognition (OCR) is also frequently employed to provide automated full-text searchable files. Common issues that affect the accuracy of OCR applied to scanned images of microfilm include unusual fonts, faded printing, shaded backgrounds, fragmented letters, skewed text, curved lines and bleed through on the originals.^[16] For film types with no distinguishing marks, or when OCR is impossible (handwriting, layout issues, degraded text), the data must be entered in manually; a very time consuming process.

the end @ copyright dr iwan suwandy 2010

2 Comments

Posted in world War II Collections

Pameran Meterai Hindia Belanda(DEI Revenue)

Posted on January 9, 2011 | 2 comments

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

tarian betawi tempo dulu

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :Pameran Meterai Hindia Belanda

(The Indonesia Dutch East Indie Revenue Stamped Exhibition)

Frame one: ABAD Ke 18 dan 19 (19th Century)

1.The Ancient Indonesia Revenue

1)VOC

(1) Revenue on papermoney

(2) Noncolour embosed VOC revenue sheet

(3) VOC embosed

2)LN(Dandaels)

3)ECI(Raffles)

2a. The First Revenue Nedrl. Indie five cent

1) 2.11.1988

2.11.1888 Dutch East indie(DEI) first issued revenue stamp 5 cent , please report the earliest used and another high nominal revenue issued like 10 gld earliest issued in 19th century and 100 gulden latest issue in 1949, the complete information please look the xext info.@copyright Dr iwan S. 2010.

2b. THE OVERPRINT 10 CENT ON THE FIRST REVENUE FIVE CENT(EMERGENCY REVENUE)

10.5.1893

4 THE 10 CENT PLAKZEGEL VAN NEDERLANDZ INDIE

1) 6.5.1899(earliest date)

6.5.1899 DEI 2nd issued revenue , please report the earliest used.

FRAME DUA(TWO): ABAD KE 20(20th CENTURY)

1, GREEN PLAKZEGEL VAN NEDERLANDSCN INDIE 10 CENT(HIJAU)

1) 5.8,1900

5.8.1900 Dutch East Indie 2nd issued revenue 10 cent

2.JELLOW PLAKZEGEL VAN NEDERLANDSCN INDIE overprint 10 CENT

3. EMERGENCY OVERPRINT 15 CENT ON JELLOW 10 CENT REVENUE

1) overprint black 1o cent

9-3,1927

1927. Overprint 15 cent emergency revenue due to International inflation(Malaisee era) rate up from ten cent to 15 cent(50%)

2) BLACK TYPE

4. YELLOW PLAKZEGEL NEDERLANDSCN INDIE

1) 15 CENT

2) 50 CENT

3) 75 CENT

4) 1 GLD

10 jun 1926

5) 1.25 GLD

6) 1,5,2,5, AND 10 GLD

5.SEVERAL COLOR REVENUE

6. DUTCH EAST INDIE STAMP AND REVENUE EMERGY OVPT DAINIPPON(YELLOW,GREEN AND VIOLET)

1) WITHOUT OVERPRINT

2.WITH OVERPRINT

1943-1945 Dai NipponSumatra Revenue , before emergency postal stamp with DI Nippron areal chopped were usedblook below from west sumatra, also from other aa real star ovpt at Acheg, Hinomaru overprint at tapanuli, IPL overprint at palembang , also postmarter handsign from South Sumatra .

1943 Dai Nippon cross overprint DEI queen Wilhelmina koninnerberg stamps uese as emergency revenue because the new Dai nippon revenue not issued and DEI revenue not exist anymore, after this issued Dai nippon rvenue..

18.11.03(1943) Dutch East Indie(DEI) revenue used during Dai Nippon Occupation Sumatra

14.10.2605(1945). Dai Nippn Java revenue used after Indonesian Independence proclamation

23-XI-2605(1945) Dai Nippon Sumatra revenue used after Indoesia Independent proclamation

NICA ovpt Indonesia Stamp used as revenue(UAR)

DR IWAN NOTE:

1.I starting this write this information since 1983, first asking Mr Ramkema from Dai Nippon club Nederland info, 1985 contack inmemoriam Mr V.Esbensen -canada later Singapore, in 1996-1997 prepared write a book with Mr Suwito from Jakarta five stars phillatelic club sponsored and also from Dai Nippon club Naderland (Mr Vosse) but postponed because the Indonesia multicrisis sociao-economic-political at March 1998 when the reformation orde beats the new orde (Suharto) , at least in 2009 Mr Vosse issued Indonesia Revenue during Dai Nippon Occupation and Indonesia Revolt for Independence alone without any discussed with me, after issued he asking me new information didn.t list in his catalogue and I gave me some information from my collections for the new catalogue I hope he didn’t forgotten to list my name in his catalogue. When I read Mr Vosse catalogue borrow from my best friend Yudi-Mr Suwito man, that catalogue still many Indonesian Independence war revenue from Java and Sumatra didn’t exist , this catalogue very best in East Indonesia regions because that area occupied by Dutch NICA after the WWII . The informations in Vosse catalogue only related to Revenue trader bussiness but the price not reseonable because never discussed with indonesia senior collectors and this catalogue only about revenue without related with History, that is why I didn,t give him more information and write this Indonesia Revenue History with three part , first Indonesia revenue before WW II, second during WW II (Dai Nippon Occupation) and third after WW II divided two three subchapter 1st Dai Nippon Revenue after Indonesian Independence Proclamation, 2nd Dutch Nica revenue , 3rd the State of Republic Indonesia revenue. All the collection will arranged chronologic with the related history (Historical fact) .

2.PLEASE BE PATIENT MORE COLLECTIONS WILL INSTALLED

3.I HAVE ADD THE INDONESIAN iNDEPENDENT WAR REVENUE FROM 1945 TO MARCH 1945 AT MY BLOG ,please click hhtp://www.uniquecollection.wordpress.com and later will show at my cybermsueum.

4.I hope this informations will comment by the senior revenue collectors with their collections sharing, also another collectors please joint collectors choice for the items will put in my Cyber museum, I am always give you a friendly gift a Indonesia revenue collection for your information and comment, as Mr bulterman and in memoriam Mr V.Esbensen they gift me their catalogue free as the friendly gift, not like another writer they always want free informations only.

the end @ Copyright Dr Iwan Suwandy . 2011,

forbidden to copy without my permission.

2 Comments

Posted in Indonesia Revenue Collections

The Marocco Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 9, 2011 | 2 comments

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

tarian betawi tempo dulu

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Marocco Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The Marocco Collections

1.Postal History

2.Numismatic

(1) Coins

(2) Banknote

3.Painting Found In Indonesia

4.Pictures

1) Royal

2)Traditional

3)Marocco modern ceramic design

Resources and Articles : Moroccan Ceramic Pottery Gifts

Morocco is a country of immense diversity and natural beauty – a blending of vivid sensuality and intense spirituality. This visually sophisticated nation possesses a highly distinctive landscape and culture. It is separated from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean to the north. Algeria is to the east; Mauritania and the Sahara Desert are to the south. The Rif Mountains hug the Mediterranean coast and the Atlas Mountains form the country’s spine.

The brilliant arts and crafts of Morocco is an exotic mixture of heritages – Berber, Arab, French, English, Spanish. They combine together in a country that remains refreshingly removed from the rest of the world. Traditional Moroccan architectural and artistic craftsmanship continues to flourish and some 20% of the working population earn their livelihoods in craft production.

There are different types of Moroccan ceramics produced: unglazed pottery, originally for domestic and utilitarian use; painted and glazed decorative ceramics, which were used as plates and bowls; and loose cut tiles. Moroccan pottery is also tied to its people�s belief of magic and evil spirits. In the Middle Atlas, pottery was used to predict the type of year a person was going to have, either a successful year or not. People would place a couscous steamer on a tent pole and then push it off. If it only breaks into a few large pieces, then the year will be good. If it falls and shatters into many tiny pieces then winter will be awful and hard times are ahead.

Modern made ceramic pieces are often cobalt blue designs that shine off a brilliant white background. Designs are often geometric shapes with leaves flowers in the pattern. The many different shapes of pots and vases make them incredibly versatile for interior decorating. Smaller flat pieces can be placed on tables, while Moroccan vases put in corners of a room to fill excess space. Each piece of Moroccan Fes (Fez) pottery is unique because of the firing technique used to create them. Once fired, there is no way to predict how the glaze will settle. Two pots made with the same glaze could easily come out two different shades. This adds to the dedication and skill required for this art form.

4)tour

(1) City Pictures

(2) Tour Package

Whether for leisure, business conventions or incentives, each package is customized for the traveler’s enjoyment.

Magnificent Morocco:
The Grand Tour

Morocco is a study of contrasts, and this tour reveals this remarkable country at its best. Though it would take months to discover all the joys of Morocco, you will be given an insight into why so many people, including the famous American writer Paul Bowles, chose to call Morocco home. You will visit the four Imperial Cities, the Atlas Mountains, the Sahara Desert, and the cities of Casablanca, Rabat, Meknes, Volubilis, Fez, Ifrane, Erfoud, Tinerhir, Ouarzazate, and Marrakesh, many places which have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO. You will explore the ancient and the modern, the historic and the natural, the rural and the urban: the diversity and magnificence that is called Morocco.

Majestic Morocco: The Imperial Cities

Natural beauty, ancient history, and cultural diversity—these are the qualities for which Morocco is known. A land always coveted by others, it was a crossroads for trade from Europe to Southern Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East. Foreign rulers longed for control of Morocco, then called Mauritania. Phoenicians, Romans, Arabs, Spaniards, Portuguese, French and Germans all sought to occupy Morocco, and the country is etched by the battles and the occupation of its invaders. Rabat, Meknes, Fez, and Marrakech are referred to as the Imperial Cities, having once been capitals during various Muslim Dynasties. The architecture of these cities displays the influence of these invaders.

Prehistoric Morocco: A Journey Back through Time

This tour transports you roughly backward through time in Morocco: you begin in modern-day Ouarzazate, the film capital of Morocco, where many American films have been made, such as Romancing the Stone, The Gladiator, The Sheltering Sky, and Lawrence of Arabia. You will also visit the grand and picturesque Aït Benhaddou, so beautiful that it has been used as the backdrop for many American films. Then you will view the spectacular natural scenery of both the Dades Gorge and the Todra Gorge: composed by time, the gorges are a symphony of color, texture, and shape. Moreover, you will explore areas with fossilized dinosaur remains, uncharted roads, and prehistoric rock carvings.

Morocco by the Sea: The Ancient Route of the Moors

The Moors, a genetic mixture of Arabs and Berbers, came from a region of North Africa that is Morocco today. By the 7th century, they occupied large areas of Portugal and Spain, called al-Andalus. The Moorish occupation of Spain is considered a “golden era” in which learning, culture, and trade flourished. The influence of the Moors, or Andalusians, may be seen most prominently today in towns and villages in north Moroccan. Eventually the Moorish influence spread to the New World, seen clearly in the colonial architecture of Latin and South America.

Spiritual Morocco: The Jewish Tradition

The geography, history, and the people of Morocco have always been complex and diverse. The first Jews arrived with the Phoenician merchants about 1000 BC, settling along the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Over hundreds of years, the Jews have established traditions in nearly every area within Morocco. Throughout the course of your tour, you will visit the significant Jewish heritage sites within the major cities, discovering the Jewish heritage within this remarkably unique and tolerant country.

Frame two :

Marocco Historic collections

Kingdom of Moroccoالمملكة المغربية (Arabic)
Al-Mamlakatu l-Maġribiyahⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵔⵓⴽ (Berber)
Tageldit n Umerruk
(French)
Royaume du Maroc


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: “الله، الوطن، الملك”
“Allāh, al Waṭan, al Malik” (transliteration)
“Yakuc – Tamurt – Agellid”
God – Homeland – King

Anthem: “Hymne Chérifien“

The striped area on the map shows Western Sahara, most of which is de facto administered by Morocco as its “Southern Provinces“. Its sovereignty is currently in dispute.

Capital Rabat
34°02′N 6°51′W / 34.033°N 6.85°W / 34.033; -6.85

Largest city

Casablanca

Official language(s) Arabic^[1]

Recognised national languages French, Berber language, Darija

Ethnic groups Berber-Arab 99.1%, Jews 0.2%, others 0.7%^[2]

Demonym

Moroccan

Government

Constitutional monarchy

– King Mohammed VI

– Prime Minister Abbas El Fassi

Unification 780

– Unified by Idrisid dynasty 780–974

– Saadi Morocco 1554–1659

– Alaouite Morocco 1666–1912

– Independence from France March 2, 1956

– Independence from Spain April 7, 1956

Area

– Total 710,850 km² (57th)
274,460 sq mi

– Water (%) 250 km² (0,056%)

Population

– 2009 estimate 32,993,000^[3] (38th)

– 2004 census 29,680,069^[3]

– Density 71.6/km² (122nd)
185.5/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate

– Total $193.15 billion

– Per capita $4,745.20

GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate

– Total $104.031 billion

– Per capita $2,941.13

HDI (2010) 0.567 (medium) (114th)

Currency Moroccan dirham (MAD)

Time zone WET (UTC+0)

– Summer (DST) WEST (UTC+1)

Drives on the right

ISO 3166 code

Internet TLD

.ma

Calling code +212

*All data excludes the Western Sahara, much of which is under Moroccan de facto administrative control.

¹ French is not official, but it is widely used in official government documents, and by the business community. Moroccan Arabic or Darija is a common native language, and it is spoken but not written. Classical Arabic is official, and it is a written, but not a natively spoken, language. Amazigh or Berber is a widely spoken language and is both native and written.

The Kingdom of Morocco^[4] (المملكة المغربية, al-Mamlakah al-Maġribiyya), is a country located in North Africa which is less formally known as simply Morocco (ⁱ /m ə ˈ r ɒ k oʊ /; Arabic: المغرب‎, al-Maġrib; Berber: Amerruk / Murakuc). It has a population of nearly 33 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administrates the disputed region of the Western Sahara. The history of the country’s known human civilization spans over 8000 years, and it was founded by the Berbers who are the original inhabitants.

Morocco is a de jure constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including dissolving parliament at will. Executive power is exercised by the government and by the king as well. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. Parliamentary elections were held in Morocco on 7 September 2007, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair; although voter turnout was estimated to be 37%, the lowest in decades. The political capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca; other large cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes and Oujda.

Morocco has a rich indigenous culture and civilization, and its cuisine has long been considered to be one of the most diverse in the world. The population is probably 40% to 55% Berber , partly mixed with ethnic Arabs. Although Arabic is the official language,^[5] modern studies show that the Arabization process in Morocco was mostly linguistic. Berber-speaking Moroccans can be divided in three main dialectal groups: the Riffians, the Chleuh and the Central Moroccan Atlas inhabitants.

Name

Barbary Lion, often considered the national emblem of Morocco

The full Arabic name al-Mamlaka al-Maġribiyya (المملكة المغربية) translates to “The Western Kingdom”. Al-Maġrib (meaning “The West”) is commonly used. For historical references, medieval Arab historians and geographers used to refer to Morocco as Al-Maghrib al Aqşá (“The Farthest West”), disambiguating it from neighboring historical regions called al-Maghrib al Awsat (“The Middle West”, Algeria) and al-Maghrib al Adna (“The Nearest West”, Tunisia).^[6]

The English name “Morocco” originates from Spanish “Marruecos” or the Portuguese “Marrocos”, from medieval Latin “Morroch”, which referred to the name of the former Almoravid and Almohad capital, Marrakesh.^[7] In Persian and Urdu and Hindi Morocco is still called “Marrakesh”. In Turkish, Morocco is called “Fas” which comes from the ancient Idrisid and Marinid capital, Fes.

The word “Marrakesh” is derived from the Amazigh Berber word combination Mur-Akush (ⵎⵓⵔ-ⴰⴽⵓⵛ), meaning Land of God.

Ruins of Chellah, Rabat

History

History of Morocco

Ancient Morocco
Prehistoric and Berber Morocco
Mauretania Tingitana
Byzantine Empire
7th–11th century
Masmuda Confederacy
Umayyad conquests
Berber Revolt
Barghawata Confederacy
Emirate of Sijilmassa
Kingdom of Maghrib al Aqsa
11th–13th century
Caliphate of Cordoba
Kingdom of the Almoravids
Almohad Caliphate
Fez-Morocco
Kingdom of Morocco (1215–1659) Kingdom of Marrakech, Kingdom of Fez
Empire of Morocco (1666–late 19th C.) Kingdom of Marrakech, Kingdom of Fez, Kingdom of the Souss, Kingdom of Sijilmassa, Land of Draa
Sultanate of Morocco (late 19th C.–1957) Morocco, Tekna Confederation
Protectorate (1912–1956)
Treaty of Fez French Protectorate, Spanish Protectorate
Rif Republic
Tangier Protocol
Modern Morocco (since 1956)
Ifni War
Sand War
Green March
Madrid Accords
Moroccan dynasties [show] Idrisid dynasty Almoravid dynasty Almohad dynasty Marinid dynasty Wattasid dynasty Saadi dynasty Alaouite dynasty
Related Topics[show] 1970s in Morocco 1980s in Morocco 1990s in Morocco 2000s in Morocco Economic history Military history Postal history Imperial cities

The earliest well-known Moroccan independent state was the Berber kingdom of Mauretania under king Bocchus I. This Berber Kingdom of Mauretania (current northern Morocco) dates at least to 110 BC.^[8]

Umayyad Arabs conquered the region in the 7th century, bringing their language, their system of government, and Islam, to which many of the Berbers slowly converted, mostly after the Arab rule receded. In the Islamic era the first Moroccan Muslim state, independent from the Arab Empire, was The Kingdom of Nekor, an emirate in the Rif area. It was founded by an immigrant from Yemen, Salih I ibn Mansur in 710 AD, as a client state to Caliphal grant. Idris I fled to Morocco from the Abbasids’ massacre against his tribe in Iraq and managed to convince the Awraba Berber tribes to break allegiance to the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. He founded the Idrisid Dynasty in 780 AD. Morocco became later a center of learning and a major power.

From the 11th century onwards, a series of powerful Berber dynasties arose. Under the Almoravid dynasty and the Almohad dynasty, Morocco dominated the Maghreb, Muslim Spain, and the western Mediterranean region. In the 13th century the Merinids gained power over Morocco and strove to replicate the successes of the Almohads. In the 15th century the Reconquista ended Islamic rule in Iberia and many Muslims and Jews fled to Morocco. Under the Saadi Dynasty, the first Moroccan dynasty initiated by ethnic Arabs since the Idrisids, the country would consolidate power and fight off Portuguese and Ottoman invaders, as in the battle of Ksar el Kebir. The reign of Ahmad al-Mansur brought new wealth and prestige to the Sultanate, and a massive Berber invasion of the Songhay Empire was initiated.

However, managing the territories across the Sahara proved too difficult. After the death of al-Mansur the country was divided among his sons. In 1666 the sultanate was reunited by the Alaouite dynasty, who have since been the ruling house in Morocco. The organization of the state developed with Ismail Ibn Sharif. With his Black Guard he drove the British from Tangier (1684) and the Spanish from Larache (1689). In 1912, after the First Moroccan Crisis and the Agadir Crisis, the Treaty of Fez was signed, effectively dividing Morocco into a French and Spanish protectorate. In 1956, after 44 years of occupation, Morocco regained independence from France and Spain as the “Kingdom of Morocco”.

Population of Morocco

The area of present day Morocco has been inhabited since Neolithic times (at least since 2000 BC, as attested by signs of the Capsian culture), a period when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today. In Mesolithic ages the geography of Morocco resembled a savanna more than the present day arid landscape.^[9] In the classical period, Morocco was known as Mauretania, although this should not be confused with the modern-day country of Mauritania. Modern DNA analysis (see link) has confirmed that various populations have contributed to the present-day gene pool of Morocco in addition to the main ethnic group which is the Amazighs/Berbers. Those other various populations are Arabs, Iberians, Phoenicians, Sephardic Jews and sub-Saharan Africans.

A large Jewish community lived in Morocco before the creation of Israel, numbering approximately 265,000 in 1948, although between 7,000 and 12,000 live there now (mostly in few major cities). A call made by late king Hassan II for Jews to return to Morocco was not answered.

Romans and Berber Morocco

A Roman mosaic in Volubilis

North Africa and Morocco were slowly drawn into the wider emerging Mediterranean world by Phoenician trading colonies and settlements in the early Classical period. Major early substantial settlements of the Phoenicians were at Chellah, Lixus and Mogador,^[10] with Mogador being a Phoenician colony as early as the early 6th century BC.^[11] The arrival of Phoenicians heralded a long engagement with the wider Mediterranean, as this strategic region formed part of the Roman Empire, as Mauretania Tingitana. In the fifth century, as the Roman Empire declined, the region fell to the Vandals, Visigoths, and then the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Roman Empire, in rapid succession. During this time, however, the high mountains of most of modern Morocco remained unsubdued, and stayed in the hands of their Berber inhabitants. Christianity was introduced in the second century and gained converts in the towns and among slaves and Berber farmers.

Islamic era

The Kasbah of Aït Benhaddou, High Atlas. Built by the Berbers from the 14th century onwards, a Kasbah was a single family stronghold (as opposed to a Ksar: a fortified tribal village).

Islamic expansion began in the seventh century. In 670 AD, the first Islamic conquest of the North African coastal plain took place under Uqba ibn Nafi, a general serving under the Umayyads of Damascus. Arabs brought their language and Islam, to which most of the Berbers converted. After the outbreak of the Great Berber Revolt in 739, the region’s Berber population asserted its independence, forming states and kingdoms such as the Miknasa of Sijilmasa and the Barghawata. Under Idris ibn Abdallah, who was appointed by the Awraba Berbers of Volubilis to be their representative, the country soon cut ties and broke away from the control of the distant Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad and the Umayyad rule in Al-Andalus. The Idrisids established Fes as their capital and Morocco became a centre of learning and a major regional power.

Morocco would reach its height under a series of Berber dynasties that replaced the Idrisids after the 11th century.^[12] From the 13th century onwards the country has seen a massive migration of Banu Hilal Arab tribes. Their arrival was to have a critical effect on the nation: due to them nomadism returned, urban civilization fell and the country’s inhabitants were quickly becoming Arabized. The Maghrawa, the Almoravids, the Almohads, the Marinids, the Wattasids and finally the Saadi dynastie would see Morocco rule most of Northwest Africa, as well as large sections of Islamic Iberia, or Al-Andalus. Following the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula, large numbers of Muslims and Jews were forced to flee to Morocco.^[13]

The Sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco, by Eugène Delacroix

After the Saadi, the Arab Alaouite Dynasty eventually gained control. Morocco was facing aggression from Spain and the Ottoman Empire that was sweeping westward. The Alaouites succeeded in stabilizing their position, and while the kingdom was smaller than previous ones in the region, it remained quite wealthy. In 1684, they annexed Tangier. The organization of the kingdom developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727), who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state.^[14]

Morocco was one of the first nations to recognize the fledgling United States as an independent nation in 1787.^[15] In the beginning of the American Revolution, American merchant ships were subject to attack by the Barbary Pirates while sailing the Atlantic Ocean. On December 20, 1777, Morocco’s Sultan Mohammed III declared that the American merchant ships would be under the protection of the sultanate and could thus enjoy safe passage. The Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship stands as the U.S.’s oldest non-broken friendship treaty.^[16]^[17]

European influence

Successful Portuguese efforts to invade and control the Atlantic coast in the fifteenth century did not profoundly affect the Mediterranean heart of Morocco. After the Napoleonic Wars, Egypt and the North African maghreb became increasingly ungovernable from Istanbul, the resort of pirates under local beys, and as Europe industrialized, an increasingly prized potential for colonization. The Maghreb had far greater proven wealth than the unknown rest of Africa and a location of strategic importance affecting the exit from the Mediterranean. For the first time, Morocco became a state of some interest in itself to the European Powers. France showed a strong interest in Morocco as early as 1830.^[18] Recognition by the United Kingdom in 1904 of France’s sphere of influence in Morocco provoked a reaction from the German Empire; the crisis of June 1905 was resolved at the Algeciras Conference, Spain in 1906, which formalized France’s “special position” and entrusted policing of Morocco jointly to France and Spain. A second Moroccan crisis provoked by Berlin, increased tensions between European powers. The Treaty of Fez (signed on March 30, 1912) made Morocco a protectorate of France. By the same treaty, Spain assumed the role of protecting power over the northern and southern Saharan zones on November 27 that year.^[19]

Many Moroccan soldiers (Goumieres) served in the French army in both World War I and World War II, and in the Spanish Nationalist Army in the Spanish Civil War and after (Regulares).

Resistance

Pre-1956 Tangier had a highly heterogeneous population that included 40,000 Muslims, 30,000 Europeans and 15,000 Jews.^[20]

Under the French protectorate, Moroccan natives were denied their basic human rights such as freedom of speech, the right of gathering and travel in their own country. French settlers built for themselves modern European-like cities called ” Village or ville” next to poor old Arab cities called “Medinas”. The French apartheid system forbid native Moroccans from living, working, and traveling into the French quarters. The French education system was teaching the few favored noble native Moroccan families about solely French history, art and culture. There was complete disregard for the natives own language and culture. Colonial authorities exerted tighter control on religious schools and universities namely “madrassas” and quaraouaine university. The rise of a young Moroccan intellectual class gave birth to nationalist movements whose main goals were to restore the governance of the country to its own people.^[21] Nationalist political parties, which subsequently arose under the French protectorate, based their arguments for Moroccan independence on such World War II declarations as the Atlantic Charter (a joint U.S.-British statement that set forth, among other things, the right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live). A manifesto of the Istiqlal Party (Independence party in English) in 1944 was one of the earliest public demands for independence. That party subsequently provided most of the leadership for the nationalist movement.

France’s exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953 to Madagascar and his replacement by the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, whose reign was perceived as illegitimate, sparked active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. The most notable violence occurred in Oujda where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents in the streets. Operations by the newly created “Jaish al-tahrir” (Liberation Army), were launched on October 1, 1955. Jaish al-tahrir was created by “Comité de Libération du Maghreb Arabe” (Arab Maghreb Liberation Committee) in Cairo, Egypt to constitute a resistance movement against occupation. Its goal was the return of King Mohammed V and the liberation of Algeria and Tunisia as well. France allowed Mohammed V to return in 1955, and the negotiations that led to Moroccan independence began the following year.^[22]

All those events helped increase the degree of solidarity between the people and the newly returned king. For this reason, the revolution that Morocco knew was called “Taourat al-malik wa shaab” (The revolution of the King and the People) and it is celebrated every August 20.

Contemporary Morocco

The Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat

On November 18, 2006, Morocco celebrated the 50th anniversary of its independence. Morocco recovered its political independence from France on March 2, 1956, and on April 7, France officially relinquished its protectorate. Through agreements with Spain in 1956 and 1958, Moroccan control over certain Spanish-ruled areas was restored, though attempts to claim other Spanish colonial possessions through military action were less successful. The internationalized city of Tangier was reintegrated with the signing of the Tangier Protocol on October 29, 1956 (see Tangier Crisis). Hassan II became King of Morocco on March 3, 1961. His early years of rule would be marked by political unrest. The Spanish enclave of Ifni in the south was reintegrated to the country in 1969. Morocco annexed the Western Sahara during the 1970s (“Marcha Verde”, Green March) after demanding its reintegration from Spain since independence, but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved. (See History of Western Sahara.)^[23]

Political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature in 1997. Morocco was granted Major non-NATO ally status by the United States in June 2004 and has signed free trade agreements with the United States and the European Union.

Politics

Morocco

King
- Mohammed VI
Makhzen
Prime Minister
- Abbas El Fassi
Parliament
- Assembly of Councillors
- Assembly of Representatives
Political parties
Elections: 2002, 2007
Regions
Provinces
Wilayas
Human rights
Foreign relations
Western Sahara conflict

The current King of Morocco, Mohammed VI

Morocco is a de jure constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco, with vast executive powers, can dissolve government and deploy the military, among other prerogatives. Opposition political parties are legal, and several have been formed in recent years. Politics of Morocco take place in a framework of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Morocco is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives of Morocco and the Assembly of Councillors. The Moroccan Constitution provides for a monarchy with a Parliament and an independent judiciary.

The constitution grants the king extensive powers; he is both the secular political leader and the “Commander of the Faithful” as a direct descendant of the Prophet Mohammed. He presides over the Council of Ministers; appoints the Prime Minister following legislative elections, and on recommendations from the latter, appoints the members of the government. While the constitution theoretically allows the king to terminate the tenure of any minister, and after consultation with the heads of the higher and lower Assemblies, to dissolve the Parliament, suspend the constitution, call for new elections, or rule by decree, the only time this happened was in 1965. The King is formally the chief of the military. Upon the death of his father Mohammed V, King Hassan II succeeded to the throne in 1961. He ruled Morocco for the next 38 years, until he died in 1999. His son, King Mohammed VI, assumed the throne in July 1999.

Following the March 1998 elections, a coalition government headed by opposition socialist leader Abderrahmane Youssoufi and composed largely of ministers drawn from opposition parties, was formed. Prime Minister Youssoufi’s government is the first government drawn primarily from opposition parties in decades, and also represents the first opportunity for a coalition of socialist, left-of-center, and nationalist parties to be included in the government until October 2002. It was also the first time in the modern political history of the Arab world that the opposition assumed power following an election. The current government is headed by Abbas El Fassi.

Legislative branch

The legislature’s building in Rabat

Since the constitutional reform of 1996, the bicameral legislature consists of two chambers. The Assembly of Representatives of Morocco (Majlis al-Nuwab/Assemblée des Répresentants) has 325 members elected for a five year term, 295 elected in multi-seat constituencies and 30 in national lists consisting only of women. The Assembly of Councillors (Majlis al-Mustasharin) has 270 members, elected for a nine year term, elected by local councils (162 seats), professional chambers (91 seats) and wage-earners (27 seats). The Parliament’s powers, though limited, were expanded under the 1992 and 1996 constitutional revisions and include budgetary matters, approving bills, questioning ministers, and establishing ad hoc commissions of inquiry to investigate the government’s actions. The lower chamber of Parliament may dissolve the government through a vote of no confidence.

Judicial branch

The highest court in the judicial structure is the Supreme Court, whose judges are appointed by the King. The Youssoufi government continued to implement a reform program to develop greater judicial independence and impartiality. Morocco is divided into 16 administrative regions; the regions are administered by the Walis and governors appointed by the King.

Administrative divisions

Different versions of maps of Morocco

Morocco is divided into 16 regions,^[24] and subdivided into 62 prefectures and provinces.^[25]

As part of a 1997 decentralization/regionalization law passed by the legislature, sixteen new regions were created. These regions are:

Provinces

Morocco is divided into 37 provinces and 2 wilayas*: Agadir, Al Hoceima, Azilal, Beni Mellal, Ben Slimane, Boulemane, Casablanca*, Chaouen, El Jadida, El Kelaa des Sraghna, Er Rachidia, Essaouira, Fes, Figuig, Guelmim, Ifrane, Kenitra, Khemisset, Rommani, Khenifra, Khouribga, Laayoune, Larache, Marrakech, Meknes, Nador, Ouarzazate, Oujda, Rabat-Sale*, Safi, Settat, Sidi Kacem, Tangier, Tan-Tan, Taounate, Taroudannt, Tata, Taza, Tetouan, Tiznit; three additional provinces of Ad Dakhla (Oued Eddahab), Boujdour, and Es Smara as well as parts of Tan-Tan and Laayoune fall within Moroccan-claimed Western Sahara.

Cities

To find related topics in a list, see List of cities in Morocco.

Largest cities in Morocco
Casablanca Rabat Fes	Rank	City	Region	Population	Rank	City	Region	Population	view · talk · edit Marrakech Tangier Agadir
	1	Casablanca	Grand Casablanca	5,399,428	11	Tétouan	Tanger-Tétouan	207,987
	2	Rabat	Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer	1,183,822	12	Safi	Doukkala-Abda	284,750
	3	Fes	Fès-Boulemane	1,088,782	13	Mohammédia	Grand Casablanca	188,619
	4	Marrakech	Marrakech-Tensift-El Haouz	1,070,838	14	Khouribga	Chaouia-Ouardigha	172,000
	5	Tangier	Tanger-Tétouan	709,685	15	Beni Mellal	Tadla-Azilal	163,286
	6	Agadir	Sous-Massa-Draa	678,596	16	Nador	Oriental	150,000
	7	Salé	Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer	603,485	17	El Jadida	Doukkala-Abda	144,440
	8	Meknès	Meknès-Tafilalet	536,232	18	Taza	Taza-Al Hoceima-Taounate	139,686
	9	Oujda	Oriental	400,738	19	Larache	Tanger-Tétouan	117,000
	10	Kenitra	Gharb-Chrarda-Béni Hssen	359,142	20	Settat	Chaouia-Ouardigha	116,570
references

Western Sahara status

East of the berm is the territory controlled by the Polisario

Because of the conflict over Western Sahara, the status of both regions of “Saguia el-Hamra” and “Río de Oro” is disputed. The United Nations views Western Sahara as a non-self-governing territory, and as a case of unfinished decolonization. Morocco’s rule in the territory is not internationally recognized, nor is the independent republic proposed by Polisario, a Saharawi group which fought against the Spanish colonial rule and then for Western Sahara’s independence as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (today headquartered in Algeria). There is a ceasefire in effect since 1991, and a UN mission (MINURSO) is tasked with organizing a referendum on whether the territory should become independent or recognized as a part of Morocco. At the time, both parties signed an agreement to this effect, but they did not agree on who would be entitled to vote.

The territory is mostly administered as the Southern Provinces by Morocco since Spain handed over the territory to Morocco and Mauritania after the Madrid Accords in 1975-76. Part of the territory, the Free Zone, is an unhabited area controlled by the Polisario Front as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic with Headquarters at Tindouf in Algeria. A UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September, 1991.

Western Sahara War

The Western Sahara War was the armed conflict which saw the Sahrawi rebel national liberation movement Polisario Front(Headquarted in Algeria) battling Morocco and Mauritania for the control of the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara from 1976 to 1991. The war resulted in the Spanish retreat in 1976, the Mauritanian retreat in 1979 and a cease fire agreement with Morocco. The bigger part of the territory remained under Moroccan control.

Moroccan Autonomy Initiative

Recently, the government of Morocco has suggested autonomous status for the region, through the Moroccan Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs (CORCAS). The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007. The proposal was encouraged by Moroccan allies such as the USA, France and Spain,^[26] and the Security Council “Takes note of the Moroccan proposal presented on 11 April 2007 to the Secretary-General and welcoming serious and credible Moroccan efforts to move the process forward towards resolution;”. The Security Council has called upon the parties to enter into direct and unconditional negotiations to reach a mutually accepted political solution.^[27]

Geography

Malabata, Tangier

High Atlas mountains

Rif mountains

Mediterranean coast, Saidia

Bin el Ouidane river, Beni-Mellal

Marrakech region

Road in Ifrane

Moroccan Sahara

Morocco has a coast on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Spain to the north (a water border through the Strait and land borders with three small Spanish-controlled exclaves, Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera), Algeria to the east, and Mauritania to the south. ^[28]

The geography of Morocco spans from the Atlantic Ocean, to mountainous areas, to the Sahara (desert). Morocco is a Northern African country, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, between Algeria and the annexed Western Sahara.

A large part of Morocco is mountainous. The Atlas Mountains are located mainly in the center and the south of the country. The Rif Mountains are located in the north of the country. Both ranges are mainly inhabited by the Berber people. At 172,402 sq mi (446,519 km²), Morocco is the fifty-seventh largest country in the world (after Uzbekistan). Algeria borders Morocco to the east and southeast though the border between the two countries has been closed since 1994.

There are also four Spanish enclaves on the Mediterranean coast: Ceuta, Melilla, Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, and the Chafarinas islands, as well as the disputed islet Perejil. Off the Atlantic coast the Canary Islands belong to Spain, whereas Madeira to the north is Portuguese. To the north, Morocco is bordered by and controls part of the Strait of Gibraltar, giving it power over the waterways in and out of the Mediterranean sea.

The Rif mountains occupy the region bordering the Mediterranean from the north-west to the north-east. The Atlas Mountains run down the backbone of the country, from the south west to the north east. Most of the south east portion of the country is in the Sahara Desert and as such is generally sparsely populated and unproductive economically. Most of the population lives to the north of these mountains, while to the south is the desert. To the south, lies the Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony that was annexed by Morocco in 1975 (see Green March).^[28] Morocco claims that the Western Sahara is part of its territory and refers to that as its Southern Provinces.

Morocco’s capital city is Rabat; its largest city is its main port, Casablanca. Other cities include Agadir, Essaouira, Fes, Marrakech, Meknes, Mohammadia, Oujda, Ouarzazat, Safi, Salé, Tangier and Tétouan.

Morocco is represented in the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA.^[29] This code was used as the basis for Morocco’s internet domain, .ma.^[29]

Climate

The climate is Mediterranean in the North and in some mountains (West of Atlas), which becomes more extreme towards the interior regions. The terrain is such that the coastal plains are rich and accordingly, they comprise the backbone for agriculture, especially in the North. Forests cover about 12% of the land while arable land accounts for 18%. 5% is irrigated. In the Atlas (Middle Atlas), there are several different climates: Mediterranean (with some more humid and fresher variants), Maritime Temperate (with some humid and fresher variants too) that allow different species of oaks, moss carpets, junipers, atlantic cedars and many other plants, to form extensive and very rich humid cloud forests. In the highest peaks a different climate may occur. On the other side of Atlas mountains (East Atlas), the climate changes, due to the barrier/shelter effect of these mountainous system, turning it very dry and extremely warm during the summer (that can last several months), especially on the lowlands and on the valleys faced to the Sahara. Here it starts the big Desert Sahara and it is perfectly visible, for example, on the Draa Valley, on which it is possible to find oases, sand dunes and rocky desert landscapes. So the climate in this region is desert.

Wildlife

Morocco is known for its wildlife biodiversity. Birds represent the most important fauna.^[30] The avifauna of Morocco includes a total of 454 species, of which five have been introduced by humans, and 156 are rare or accidental.^[31]

Economy

Project of Tangier city center

Morocco’s economy is considered a relatively liberal economy governed by the law of supply and demand. Since 1993, the country has followed a policy of privatization of certain economic sectors which used to be in the hands of the government.^[32] Morocco is the world’s biggest exporter and third producer of phosphorus. Price fluctuations of phosphates in the international market strongly influence Morocco’s economy.

Government reforms and steady yearly growth in the region of 4-5% from 2000 to 2007, including 4.9% year-on-year growth in 2003-2007 helped the Moroccan economy to become much more robust compared to a few years ago. Economic growth is far more diversified, with new service and industrial poles, like Casablanca and Tangier, developing. The agriculture sector is being rehabilitated, which in combination with good rainfalls led to a growth of over 20% in 2009.

The services sector accounts for just over half of GDP and industry, made up of mining, construction and manufacturing, is an additional quarter. The sectors who recorded the highest growth are the tourism, telecoms, information technology, and textile sectors. Morocco , however, still depends to an inordinate degree on agriculture. The sector accounts for only around 14% of GDP but employs 40-45% of the Moroccan population. With a semi-arid climate, it is difficult to assure good rainfall and Morocco’s GDP varies depending on the weather. Fiscal prudence has allowed for consolidation, with both the budget deficit and debt falling as a percentage of GDP.

Casablanca Twin Center

The economic system of the country presents several facets. It is characterized by a large opening towards the outside world. France remains the primary trade partner (supplier and customer) of Morocco. France is also the primary creditor and foreign investor in Morocco. In the Arab world, Morocco has the second-largest non-oil GDP, behind Egypt, as of 2005.

Since the early 1980s the Moroccan government has pursued an economic program toward accelerating real economy growth with the support of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the Paris Club of creditors. The country’s currency, the dirham, is now fully convertible for current account transactions; reforms of the financial sector have been implemented; and state enterprises are being privatized.

The major resources of the Moroccan economy are agriculture, phosphates, and tourism. Sales of fish and seafood are important as well. Industry and mining contribute about one-third of the annual GDP. Morocco is the world’s third-largest producer of phosphorus (after China, which is first, and the United States which is second),^[33] and the price fluctuations of phosphates on the international market greatly influence Morocco’s economy. Tourism and workers’ remittances have played a critical role since the Kingdom’s independence. The production of textiles and clothing is part of a growing manufacturing sector that accounted for approximately 34% of total exports in 2002, employing 40% of the industrial workforce. The government wishes to increase textile and clothing exports from $1.27 billion in 2001 to $3.29 billion in 2010.

The high cost of imports, especially of petroleum imports, is a major problem. Another chronic problem is unreliable rainfall, which produces drought or sudden floods; in 1995, the country’s worst drought in 30 years forced Morocco to import grain and adversely affected the economy. Another drought occurred in 1997, and one in 1999–2000. Reduced incomes due to drought caused GDP to fall by 7.6% in 1995, by 2.3% in 1997, and by 1.5% in 1999. During the years between drought, good rains brought bumper crops to market. Good rainfall in 2001 led to a 5% GDP growth rate. Morocco suffers both from unemployment (9.6% in 2008), and a large external debt estimated at around $20 billion, or half of GDP in 2002.^[34]

Among the various free trade agreements that Morocco has ratified with its principal economic partners, are The Euro-Mediterranean free trade area agreement with the European Union with the objective of integrating the European Free Trade Association at the horizons of 2012; the Agadir Agreement, signed with Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, within the framework of the installation of the Greater Arab Free Trade Area; the US-Morocco Free Trade Agreement with United States which came into force on January 1, 2006, and lately the agreement of free exchange with Turkey.(See Economy of Morocco)

Demographics

Ethnolinguistic groups in Morocco as of 1973

Morocco is the fourth most populous Arab country, after Egypt, Sudan and Algeria.^[35] Most Moroccans practice Sunni Islam and are of Berber, Arab or mixed Arab-Berber stock. Arabs and Berbers comprise about 99.1% of the Moroccan population.^[36]

Morocco has been inhabited by Berbers for at least the last 5000 years. The Arabs conquered the territory that would become Morocco in the 7th and 11th centuries, at the time under the rule of various late Byzantine Roman leaders and indigenous Berber and Romano-Berber principalities, laying the foundation for the emergence of an Arab-Berber culture. A sizeable portion of the population is identified as Haratin and Gnawa (or Gnaoua), black or mixed race. Morocco’s Jewish minority (265,000 in 1948) has decreased significantly and numbers about 5,500 (See History of the Jews in Morocco).^[37] Most of the 100,000 foreign residents are French or Spanish. Some of them are colonists’ descendants, who primarily work for European multinational companies, others are married to Moroccans and preferred to settle in Morocco. Prior to independence, Morocco was home to half a million Europeans,^[38] mainly Spanish and French settlers (colons).

Recent studies make clear no significant genetic differences exist between Arabic and non-Arabic speaking populations, highlighting that in common with most of the Arab World, Arabization was mainly via acculturation of indigenous populations over time.^[39] In the 12th and 13th centuries an invasion of Arab nomads, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes, swept the whole Maghreb.^[40] The Moorish refugees from Spain settled in the coast-towns.^[41] According to the European Journal of Human Genetics, Moroccans from North-Western Africa were genetically closer to Iberians than to Sub-Saharan Africans of Bantu ethnicity.^[42]

The largest concentration of Moroccans outside Morocco is in France, which has reportedly over one million Moroccans. The Netherlands and Belgium have 1 million Moroccans from the Riff (Al Hoceima, Nador). There are also large Moroccan communities in Spain (about 700,000 Moroccans),^[43] the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Israel and the United States.^[44] Moroccan Jews are the second biggest Jewish ethnic group in Israel.

Most people live west of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fes is the cultural and religious center; and Marrakech is a major tourist center.

There is a European expatriate population of 100,000, mainly of French or Spanish descent; many are teachers or technicians or retirees, especially in Marrakech.

Languages

An overview of the different Arabic dialects

Morocco’s official language is Modern Standard Arabic. The country’s distinctive Arabic dialect is called Moroccan Arabic. Approximately 20 million (60% of the population), mostly in rural areas, speak Berber – which exists in Morocco in three different dialects (Riff, Shilha, and Central Atlas Tamazight) – either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect.^[45] French, which is Morocco’s unofficial second language, is taught universally and serves as Morocco’s primary language of commerce and economics. It also is widely used in education and government. About 2 million^{[citation needed]} Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak Spanish as a second language in parallel with Riff. English, while still far behind French and Spanish in terms of number of speakers, is rapidly becoming the second foreign language of choice among educated youth. As a result of national education reforms entering into force in late 2002, English will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on. French however, will remain the second language because of Morocco’s close economic and social links with other French-speaking countries and especially France.

Berber

The single oldest known native language of Morocco is the Berber language. Its current number of speakers is unknown. The government avoids highlighting this issue for political reasons. Berber in Morocco has three main accents or varieties: Tamazight Tarifit, Tamazight of the Atlas, and Tamazight Tashelhit.

Contrary to stereotypical beliefs held by many foreigners, Berber-speaking Moroccans live in the cities too and not only in rural areas. The cities of Casablanca and Rabat, for example, have sizable Berber-speaking populations that might amount to a third or more of their total respective populations.

The number of Tamazight-Tarifit speakers was estimated at around 3 million in 1990.^[46] The language is spoken in the Rif area in the north of the country, and is the largest Berber dialect in Morocco, by number of speakers. There is also 2 million Riff-speaking in Europe. The Riffians represent over 96% of the Morrocans in The Netherlands and Belgium. and 45% of the Morroccans in France are Riffian. The Tashelhit dialect is the most widely spoken variety of Berber, as it covers the whole of the Region Souss-Massa-Draâ, and is also spoken in the Marrakech-Tensift-El Haouz region. Studies done in 1990 show around 3 million people, concentrated in the south of Morocco, speak Tashelhit.^[46]

Linguistically, Berber belongs to the Afro-Asiatic languages group, and has many accents or variants. Collectively, these are known by many Moroccan-Arabic-speakers as “Shelha”. Classical Arabic of the Middle East still uses the word “Barbaria”. Although, there is an increasing tendency by Arab Media (e.g. Aljazeera, Asharq Alawsat) to use the word “Amazighiyya” because the Arabic word “Barbari” means both “Berber” and “Barbarian”. The terms “Barbar” and “Shelha” (or “Shalha”) are considered by most Berber activists to be offensive. They prefer the word Amazigh. However, the European word “Berber” is not considered offensive by Berbers because European languages distinguish between “Berber” and “Barbarian”.

Culture

Agdal gardens, Meknes

Old Walls of Essaouira

Morocco is an ethnically diverse country with a rich culture and civilization. Through Moroccan history, Morocco hosted many people coming from East (Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Jews and Arabs), South (Sub-Saharan Africans) and North (Romans, Vandals, Andalusians (including Moors and Jews). All those civilizations have had an impact on the social structure of Morocco. It conceived various forms of beliefs, from paganism, Judaism, and Christianity to Islam.

The production of Moroccan literature has continued to grow and diversify. To the traditional genres—poetry, essays, and historiography—have been added forms inspired by Middle Eastern and Western literary models. French is often used in publishing research in the social and natural sciences, and in the fields of literature and literary studies, works are published in both Arabic and French. Moroccan writers, such as Mohammed Choukri, Driss Chraïbi, Abdallah Laroui, Abdelfattah Kilito, and Fatima Mernissi, publish their works in both French and English. Expatriate writers such as Pierre Loti, William S. Burroughs, and Paul Bowles have drawn attention to Moroccan writers as well as to the country itself.

Since independence a veritable blossoming has taken place in painting and sculpture, popular music, amateur theatre, and filmmaking. The Moroccan National Theatre (founded 1956) offers regular productions of Moroccan and French dramatic works. Art and music festivals take place throughout the country during the summer months, among them the World Sacred Music Festival at Fès.

Moroccan music, influenced by Arab, Amazigh, African, and Andalusian traditions, makes use of a number of traditional instruments, such as the flute (nāy), shawm (ghaita), zither (qanūn), and various short necked lutes (including the ʿūd and gimbrī). These are often backed by explosive percussion on the darbūkka (terra-cotta drum). Among the most popular traditional Moroccan artists internationally are the Master Musicians of Jajouka, an all-male guild trained from childhood, and Hassan Hakmoun, a master of gnāwa trance music, a popular spiritual style that traces its roots to sub-Saharan Africa. Younger Moroccans enjoy raï, a style of plain-speaking Algerian music that incorporates traditional sounds with those of Western rock, Jamaican reggae, and Egyptian and Moroccan popular music.

Each region possesses its own specificities, thus contributing to the national culture and to the legacy of civilization. Morocco has set among its top priorities the protection of its diverse legacy and the preservation of its cultural heritage.

Culturally speaking, Morocco has always been successful in combining its Berber, Jewish and Arabic cultural heritage with external influences such as the French and the Spanish and, during the last decades, the Anglo-American lifestyles.

Cuisine

An array of Moroccan pastries.

Moroccan cuisine has long been considered as one of the most diversified cuisines in the world. This is a result of the centuries-long interaction of Morocco with the outside world. The cuisine of Morocco is a mix of Berber, Spanish, Corsican, Portuguese, Moorish, Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and African cuisines. The cuisine of Morocco has been influenced by the native Berber cuisine, the Arabic Andalusian cuisine brought by the Moriscos when they left Spain, the Turkish cuisine from the Turks and the Middle Eastern cuisines brought by the Arabs, as well as Jewish cuisine.

Spices are used extensively in Moroccan food. While spices have been imported to Morocco for thousands of years, many ingredients, like saffron from Tiliouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fez, are home-grown. Chicken is the most widely eaten meat in Morocco. The most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco is beef; lamb is preferred but is relatively expensive. Couscous is the most famous Moroccan dish along with pastilla, tajine, and harira. The most popular drink is green tea with mint.

Literature

Koutoubia Mosque, Marrakech. The name is derived from al-Koutoubiyyin, meaning librarian.

Moroccan literature is written in Arabic, Berber and French. It also contains literature produced in Al-Andalus. Under the Almohad dynasty Morocco experienced a period of prosperity and brilliance of learning. The Almohad built the Marrakech Koutoubia Mosque, which accommodated no fewer than 25,000 people, but was also famed for its books, manuscripts, libraries and book shops, which gave it its name; the first book bazaar in history. The Almohad Caliph Abu Yakub had a great love for collecting books. He founded a great library, which was eventually carried to the Casbah and turned into a public library.

Modern Moroccan literature began in the 1930s. Two main factors gave Morocco a pulse toward witnessing the birth of a modern literature. Morocco, as a French and Spanish protectorate left Moroccan intellectuals the opportunity to exchange and to produce literary works freely enjoying the contact of other Arabic literature and Europe.

During the 1950s and 1960s, Morocco was a refuge and artistic centre and attracted writers as Paul Bowles, Tennessee Williams and William S. Burroughs. Moroccan literature flourished with novelists such as Mohamed Zafzaf and Mohamed Choukri, who wrote in Arabic, and Driss Chraïbi and Tahar Ben Jelloun who wrote in French. Other important Moroccan authors include, Abdellatif Laabi, Abdelkarim Ghellab, Fouad Laroui, Mohammed Berrada and Leila Abouzeid. It should be noted also, that orature (oral literature) is an integral part of Moroccan culture, be it in Moroccan Arabic or Amazigh.

Music

Jewish Wedding in Morocco by Eugène Delacroix, Louvre, Paris

Moroccan music is of Amazigh (Berber) and sub-saharan origins. Rock-influenced chaabi bands are widespread, as is trance music with historical origins in Muslim music.

Morocco is home to Andalusian classical music that is found throughout North Africa. It probably evolved under the Moors in Cordoba, and the Persian-born musician Ziryab is usually credited with its invention. A genre known as Contemporary Andalusian music and art is the brainchild of Morisco visual artist/composer/ oudist Tarik Banzi founder of the Al-Andalus Ensemble

Chaabi (popular) is a music consisting of numerous varieties which are descended from the multifarious forms of Moroccan folk music. Chaabi was originally performed in markets, but is now found at any celebration or meeting.

Popular Western forms of music are becoming increasingly popular in Morocco, such as fusion, rock, country, metal and particularly hip hop.

Transport

Mohammed V International Airport

Marrakesh Railway Station

The railway network of Morocco consists of 1907 km 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge and 1003 km electrified with 3 kV DC. There are connections to Algeria, and consecutively Tunisia, but since the 1990s the connections are closed. The Gibraltar Tunnel is a rail tunnel link proposed between Tangier, Morocco and Spain under the Strait of Gibraltar to be in operation in 2025.

There are plans for high-speed lines: Work by ONCF could begin in 2007 from Marrakech to Tangier in the north via Marrakesh to Agadir in the south, and from Casablanca on the Atlantic to Oujda on the Algerian border. If the plans are approved, the 1,500 kilometres of track may take until 2030 to complete at a cost of around 25 billion dirhams ($3.37 billion). Casablanca to Marrakesh could be cut to 1 hour and 20 minutes from over three hours, and from the capital Rabat to Tangier to 1 hour and 30 minutes from 4 hours and 30 minutes.

There are around 56986 kilometres of roads (national, regional and provincial) in Morocco.^[47] In addition to 610,5 kilometre of highways.^[48]

The Tangier-Casablanca high-speed rail link marks the first stage of the ONCF’s high-speed rail master plan, pursuant to which over 1,500 kilometres of new railway lines will be built by 2035 The high speed train -TGV- will carry 8 million passengers per year. It will have a capacity of 500 passengers. the work in the High Speed Train project will start in June 2010 and the infrastructure works and railway equipment will end in 2014, and the HST will be operational in December 2015.^[49]

Military

Moroccan Navy Floreal class frigate

A Moroccan soldier trains with United States Marines

Compulsory military service in Morocco has been suppressed since September 2006, and the country’s reserve obligation lasts until age 50. The country’s military consists of the Royal Armed Forces—this includes the army (the largest branch) and a small navy and air force—the National Police Force, the Royal Gendarmerie (mainly responsible for rural security), and the Auxiliary Forces. Internal security is generally effective, and acts of political violence are rare (with one exception, the 2003 Casablanca bombings which killed 45 people^[50]). The UN maintains a small observer force in Western Sahara, where a large number of Morocco’s troops are stationed. The Saharawi group Polisario maintains an active militia of an estimated 5,000 fighters in Western Sahara and has engaged in intermittent warfare with Moroccan forces since the 1980s.

The military of Morocco is composed of the following main divisions:

Royal Armed Forces
- Army
- Navy
- Air Force
- Gendarmerie
- Auxiliary Forces
- Moroccan Royal Guard
- Marche Verte

Education

Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many children – particularly girls in rural areas – still do not attend school. The country’s illiteracy rate has been stuck at around 50% for some years, but reaches as high as 90% among girls in rural regions. On September 2006, UNESCO awarded Morocco amongst other countries such as Cuba, Pakistan, Rajasthan (India) and Turkey the “UNESCO 2006 Literacy Prize”.^[51]

Morocco has about 230,000 students enrolled in fourteen public universities. The Mohammed V University in Rabat and Al Akhawayn University in Ifrane (a public university) are highly regarded. Al-Akhawayn, founded in 1993 by King Hassan II and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, is an English-language American-style university comprising about 1,000 students. The University of Al Karaouine, in Fez, is considered the oldest continuously operating university in the world and has been a center of learning for more than 1,000 years.

Morocco allocates approximately one fifth of its budget to education. Much of this is spent on building schools to accommodate the rapidly growing population. Education is mandatory for children between the ages of 7 and 13 years. In urban areas the majority of children in this age group attend school, though on a national scale the level of participation drops significantly. About three fourths of school age males attend school, but only about half of school age girls; these proportions drop markedly in rural areas. Slightly more than half of the children go on to secondary education, including trade and technical schools. Of these, few seek higher education. Poor school attendance, particularly in rural areas, has meant a low rate of literacy, which is about two fifths of the population.

Universities

Morocco has more than four dozen universities, institutes of higher learning, and polytechnics dispersed at urban centres throughout the country. Its leading institutions include Muḥammad V University in Rabat, the country’s largest university, with branches in Casablanca and Fès; the Hassan II Agriculture and Veterinary Institute in Rabat, which conducts leading social science research in addition to its agricultural specialties; and Al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane, the first English-language university in North Africa,^[52] inaugurated in 1995 with contributions from Saudi Arabia and the United States. The University of Al-Karaouine or Al-Qarawiyyin is a university located in Fes. It is considered the oldest continuously operating academic degree-granting university in the world.

Morocco has also some of prestigious Postgraduate Schools like : L’École Mohammadia d’ingénieurs, l’Institut national de statistique et d’économie appliquée, l’École nationale d’industrie minérale, l’École Hassania des travaux publics, l’Institut supérieur de commerce et d’administration des entreprises, ENCG (écoles nationales de commerce et de gestion), EST (écoles supérieures de technologie).^[53]

Sport

Spectator sports in Morocco traditionally centred on the art of horsemanship until European sports—football (soccer), polo, swimming, and tennis—were introduced at the end of the 19th century. Football is the country’s premier sport, popular among the urban youth in particular, and in 1986 Morocco became the first Arab & African country to qualify to the second round in World Cup competition. At the 1984 Olympic Games, two Moroccans won gold medals in track and field events, one of whom—Nawal El Moutawakel in the 400 metre hurdles—was the first woman from an Arab or Islamic country to win an Olympic gold medal. Another was Hicham El Guerrouj. Tennis and golf have also become popular. Several Moroccan professional players have competed in international competition, and the country fielded its first Davis Cup team in 1999.

As of 2007, Moroccan society participated in many sports, including handball, football, golf, tennis, basketball, and athletics. Hicham El Guerrouj, a retired middle distance runner for Morocco, won 2 gold medals for Morocco at the Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics and holds the 1.609 km (1 mile) world record, along with other notable performances. Also kickboxing is a sport that is very popular in Morocco. Badr Hari, Heavyweight kickboxer and martial artist, is a former K-1 Heavyweight champion and K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 and 2009 finalist.

Frame three :

The Marocco Agencies Stamps Value :

Morocco Agencies Stamps (Single Items)

				Click thumbnail	Price £

A597	19		1903/5 20c grey-green & carmine, wmk “Crown CA,” mint		£10

A598	24d		1905/6 5c grey-green & green, chalky paper, mint		£5

A599	25		1905/6 10c dull purple on red, very fine mint		£9

A600	35a	British Currency	1907/13 4d orange-red, very fine mint		£6

A601	36	British Currency	1907/13 6d pale dull purple, mint		£9

A602	62/5	British Currency	1935 Silver Jubilee set, UM, 1d few minor toned perfs		£6

A603	66/74	British Currency	1935/7 KGV defins set, very fine mint		£45

A604	75a	British Currency	1936/7 EDVIII 1d, wide spaced ovpt, UM		£4

A605	77/93	British Currency	1949 KGVI defins set, very fine mint		£35

A606	94/100	British Currency	1951 KGVI defins set, very fine mint		£16

A607	120a	Spanish Currency	1907/12 1p on 10d slate-purple & carmine, mint		£13

A608	122	Spanish Currency	1907/12 6p on 5s bright carmine, mint		£22

A609	149/52	Spanish Currency	1935 Silver Jubilee set, 1d mint, others UM		£9

A610	153/9	Spanish Currency	1935/7 KGV Photogravure defins set, fine mint		£10

A611	165/71	Spanish Currency	1937/52 KGVI defins set, fine mint		£14

A612	169	Spanish Currency	1937/52 40c on 4d grey-green, mint		£12

A613	176/7	Spanish Currency	1948 Royal Silver Wedding set, UM		£15

A614	182/6	Spanish Currency	1951/2 KGVI defins set, new colours, very fine mint		£4

A615	201	French Currency	1924/32 6f on 5s Seahorse, marginal UM		£32

A616	202/11	French Currency	1925/34 KGV defins set, “Block Cypher” wmk, 1f.50c VFM, others UM		£30

A617	212/15	French Currency	1935 Silver Jubilee set, UM		£4

A618	216/26	French Currency	1935/7 KGV defins set, most values UM		£12

2)INDEPENDENT

the end @ copyright Dr Iwan suwandy 2011

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The Namibia (South West africa) collections Exhibition

Posted on January 9, 2011 | Leave a comment

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WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

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THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Namibia (SWA) Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The Namibia (SWA) Collections

1.Postal History

1)SWA (south West Africa)

a) SWA Germany Rules

This country was originally a German colony know as German South West Africa;

b) SWA British Rules

During the First World War it was occupied by South African forces and the unoverprinted issues of South Africa were used – these being known as ‘forerunner’ issues

The first stamps overprinted ‘South West Africa’ were issued on 1st January 1923 and the name ‘South West Africa’ was used until independence in 1990 when the country changed its name to Namibia.

Examples of a rare forerunner £1 stamp and a later bilingual overprinted King’s Head pair

In 1989, MY FRIEND have a duty as the United Nation International Police at Namibia (UNTAG) and he send me several postcard from the transitition goverment SWA-Namibia with SWA stamp from KeetmanShoop city ,please look at the rare and beautiful card ,also map and the city picture below

The UNTAG police forces were hard pressed to monitor all of the police forces, which were not always perfectly cooperative. Former members of the Koevoet, a paramilitary counter-insurgency group that was disbanded in 1989 and incorporated into the SWAPOL, proved to be the most problematic. According to the UN report, for the first several months, the former Koevoet units travelled heavily armed and were often reported to have behaved violently and engaged in intimidation, just as they had during the insurgency.

As these reports came in, UNTAG began negotiations with AG Pienaar and the South African Government, demanding that all South African forces in Namibia be lightly armed and that the former Koevoet forces and command structures be done away with, since most of the Koevoet personnel were not trained as police. South Africa claimed, however, that the massing of SWAPO forces at the border demanded the former Koevoet forces. These forces were not dismissed until September 1989 and were not thought to have had a significant effect on the election.

On June 12, AG Pienaar proclaimed a general amnesty for Namibians living abroad, and repealed or amended 46 discriminatory laws.^[7] He also authorised the release of political prisoners and captured combatants, who were resettled under UNTAG’s supervision. SWAPO was also required to release captured members of South African security forces. Both SWAPO and South Africa claimed that the other side continued to hold prisoners, accusations repeatedly denied by each. Alleged detention locations were searched by UNTAG personnel and the lists of missing persons were thoroughly examined and eventually reduced to just over 300 unaccounted for individuals. Refugees were also assisted after the amnesty. Many were airlifted into the country, registered, and given aid. The repatriation and resettlement of refugees was one of the most widely-celebrated and successful functions of UNTAG, while the conflict over the release of prisoners was one of the most difficult.

2)INDEPENDENT NAMIBIA

independence in 1990 when the country changed its name to Namibia.

FRAME TWO : THE NAMIBIA PICTURE COLLECTIONS

1.THE NAMIBIA FAUNA CONSERVATIONS PICTURES

2.THE NAMIBIA TRADITIONAL PICTURES

FRAME THREE:

THE NAMIBIA HISTORIC COLLECTIONS

Pre-colonial history

Modern bushmen

There is a high density of pre-modern peoples in Namibia. The most famous, Bushmen (also called San) are generally assumed to have been the earliest inhabitants of the region comprising today’s Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. The bushmen were hunters and gatherers with a nomadic lifestyle. The most important part of their diet consisted of fruits, nuts and roots, but they also hunted different kinds of antelopes. Over time, many different ethnic groups of immigrants settled in Namibia.

The north – the Ovambo and Kavango

The Ovambo, and the smaller and closely related group Kavango, lived in northern Namibia, southern Angola and, in the case of the Kavango, western Zambia. Being settled people they had an economy based on farming, cattle and fishing, but they also produced metal goods. Both groups belonged to the Bantu nation. They rarely ventured south to the central parts of the country, since the conditions there did not suit their farming way of life, but traded extensively their knives and agricultural implements.

Khoisan immigration – the Nama and Damara

Until about 2,000 years ago the original hunters and gatherers of the San people were the only inhabitants in Namibia. At this time the Nama (also known as Namaqua, Khoikhoi or Hottentots) settled around the Orange River in the south on the border between Namibia and South Africa where they kept herds of sheep and goats.

Both the San and the Nama were Khoisan peoples, and spoke languages from the Khoisan language group.

In the 9th century Damara (also known as Bergdama or Berg Damara), another Khoisan group, entered Namibia. It is unclear where they came from, but they settled in the grasslands in central Namibia, known as Damaraland.

Herero circa 1910.

Bantu immigration – the Herero

During the 17th century the Herero, a pastoral, nomadic people keeping cattle, moved into Namibia. They came from the east African lakes and entered Namibia from the northwest. First they resided in Kaokoland, but in the middle of the 19th century some tribes moved farther south and into Damaraland. A number of tribes remained in Kaokoland: these were the Himba people, who are still there today. The Herero were said to have enslaved certain groups and displaced others such as the Bushmen to marginal areas unsuitable for their way of life.

The Oorlams

In the 19th century white farmers, mostly Boers moved farther northwards pushing the indigenous Khoisan peoples, who put up a fierce resistance, across the Orange River. Known as Oorlams, these Khoisan adopted Boer customs and spoke a language similar to Afrikaans.^[2] Armed with guns, the Oorlams caused instability as more and more came to settle in Namaqualand and eventually conflict arose between them and the Nama. Under the leadership of Jonker Afrikaner, the Oorlams used their superior weapons to take control of the best grazing land. In the 1830s Jonker Afrikaner concluded an agreement with the Nama chief Oaseb whereby the Oorlams would protect the central grasslands of Namibia from the Herero who were then pushing southwards. In return Jonker Afrikaner was recognised as overlord, received tribute from the Nama and settled at what today is Windhoek, on the borders of Herero territory. The Afrikaners soon came in conflict with the Herero who entered Damaraland from the south at about the same time as the Afrikaner started to expand farther north from Namaqualand. Both the Herero and the Afrikaner wanted to use the grasslands of Damaraland for their herds. This resulted in warfare between the Herero and the Oorlams as well as between the two of them and the Damara, who were the original inhabitants of the area. The Damara were displaced by the fighting and many were killed.

With their horses and guns, the Afrikaners proved to be militarily superior and forced the Herero to give them cattle as tribute.

The first council of the Rehoboth Basters 1872, with the constitution lying on the table.

Baster immigration

The last group to arrive in Namibia before the Europeans were the Basters – descendants of Boer men and African women (mostly Nama). Being Calvinist and Afrikaans-speaking, they considered themselves to be culturally more “white” than “black”. As with the Oorlams, they were forced northwards by the expansion of white settlers when, in 1868, a group of about 90 families crossed the Orange River into Namibia.^[3] The Basters settled in central Namibia, where they founded the city Rehoboth. In 1872 they founded the “Free Republic of Rehoboth” and adopted a constitution stating that the nation should be led by a “Kaptein” directly elected by the people, and that there should be a small parliament, or Volkraad, consisting of three directly-elected citizens.^[4]

European influence and colonisation

The first European to set foot on Namibian soil was the Portuguese Diogo Cão in 1485, who stopped briefly on the Skeleton Coast, and raised a limestone cross there, on his exploratory mission along the west coast of Africa.

The next European to visit Namibia was also a Portuguese, Bartholomeu Dias, who stopped at what today is Walvis Bay and Lüderitz (which he named Angra Pequena) on his way to round the Cape of Good Hope.

The inhospitable Namib Desert constituted a formidable barrier and neither of the Portuguese explorers went far inland.

Detail of a map of Southern Africa from 1707.

In 1793 the Dutch authority in the Cape decided to take control of Walvis bay, since it was the only good deep-water harbour along the Skeleton Coast. When the United Kingdom took control of the Cape Colony in 1797, they also took over Walvis Bay. But white settlement in the area was limited, and neither the Dutch nor the British penetrated far into the country.

One of the first European groups to show interest in Namibia were the missionaries. In 1805 the London Missionary Society began working in Namibia, moving north from the Cape Colony. In 1811 they founded the town Bethanie in southern Namibia, where they built a church, which today is Namibia’s oldest building.

In the 1840s the German Rhenish Mission Society started working in Namibia and co-operating with the London Missionary Society. It was not until the 19th century, when European powers sought to carve up the African continent between them in the so called “Scramble for Africa“, that Europeans – Germany and Great Britain in the forefront – became interested in Namibia.

The first territorial claim on a part of Namibia came in 1878, when Britain annexed Walvis Bay on behalf of the Cape Colony, confirming the settlement of 1797. The annexation was an attempt to forestall German ambitions in the area, and it also guaranteed control of the good deepwater harbour on the way to the Cape Colony and other British colonies on Africa’s east coast.

Lüderitz in 1884.

In 1883, a German trader, Adolf Lüderitz, bought Angra Pequena from the Nama chief Joseph Fredericks. The price he paid was 10,000 Reichmark and 260 guns.^[5] He soon renamed the coastal area after himself, giving it the name Lüderitz. Believing that Britain was soon about to declare the whole area a protectorate, Lüderitz advised the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck to claim it. In 1884 Bismarck did so, thereby establishing German South West Africa as a colony (Deutsch-Südwestafrika in German).

A region, the Caprivi Strip, became a part of German South West Africa after the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty on July 1, 1890, between the United Kingdom and Germany. The Caprivi Strip in Namibia gave Germany access to the Zambezi River and thereby to German colonies in East Africa. In exchange for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea, Britain took control of the island of Zanzibar in East Africa.

German South-West Africa

Main article: German South-West Africa

Flag of German South-West Africa

Soon after declaring Lüderitz and a vast area along the atlantic coast a German protectorate, German troops were deployed as conflicts with the native tribes flared up, most significantly with the Namaqua. Under the leadership of the tribal chief Hendrik Witbooi, nicknamed “the black Napoleon”, the Namaqua put up a fierce resistance to the German occupation. Contemporary media called the conflict “The Hottentot Uprising”.

Namaqua chief Hendrik Witbooi

The Namaqua’s resistance proved to be unsuccessful, however, and in 1894 Witbooi was forced to sign a “protection treaty” with the Germans. The treaty allowed the Namaqua to keep their arms, and Witbooi was released having given his word of honour not to continue with the Hottentot uprising.

In 1894 major Theodor Leutwein was appointed governor of German South-West Africa. He tried without great success to apply the principle of “colonialism without bloodshed”. The protection treaty did have the effect of stabilising the situation but pockets of rebellion persisted, and were put down by an elite German regiment Schutztruppe, while real peace was never achieved between the colonialists and the natives.

A diamond

Being the only German colony considered suitable for white settlement at the time,^[6] Namibia attracted a large influx of German settlers. In 1903 there were 3,700 Germans living in the area, and by 1910 their number had increased to 13,000. Another reason for German settlement was the discovery of diamonds in 1908. Diamond production continues to be a very important part of Namibia’s economy.

The settlers were encouraged by the government to appropriate land from the natives, and forced labour – hard to distinguish from slavery – was used. As a result, relations between the German settlers and the natives deteriorated.

German troops in combat with the Herero in a painting by Richard Knötel.

The Herero and Namaqua wars

Main article: Herero and Namaqua Genocide

The ongoing local rebellions escalated in 1904 into the Herero and Namaqua Wars when the Herero attacked remote farms on the countryside, killing approximately 150 Germans.

The outbreak of rebellion was considered to be a result of Theodor Leutwein’s softer tactics, and he was replaced by the more notorious General Lothar von Trotha.

In the beginning of the war the Herero, under the leadership of chief Samuel Maharero had the upper hand. With good knowledge of the terrain they had little problem in defending themselves against the Schutztruppe (initially numbering only 766). Soon the Namaqua people joined the war, again under the leadership of Hendrik Witbooi.

Herero chained during 1904 rebellion.

To cope with the situation, Germany sent 14,000 additional troops who soon crushed the rebellion in the Battle of Waterberg in 1905. Earlier von Trotha issued an appeal to Herero people, denying them citizenship rights, and ordering them to leave the country or be killed. In order to escape, the Herero retreated into the waterless Omaheke region, a western arm of the Kalahari Desert, where many of them died of thirst. The German forces guarded every water source and were given orders to shoot any adult male Herero on sight. Only a few of them managed to escape into neighbouring British territories. These tragic events, known as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide, resulted in the death of between 24,000 and 65,000 Herero (estimated at 50% to 70% of the total Herero population) and 10,000 Nama (50% of the total Nama population). The genocide was characterized by widespread death by starvation and from consumption of well water which had been poisoned by the Germans in the Namib Desert.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Descendants of Walter von Trotha apologized to six chiefs of Herero royal houses for the actions of their ancestor on October 7, 2007.

South African rule

In 1915, during World War I, South Africa, being a member of the British Commonwealth and a former British colony, occupied the German colony of South-West Africa.

In February 1917, Mandume Ya Ndemufayo, the last king of the Kwanyama of Ovamboland, was killed in a joint attack by South African forces for resisting South African sovereignty over his people.

On December 17, 1920, South Africa undertook administration of South-West Africa under the terms of Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations and a Class C Mandate agreement by the League Council. The Class C mandate, supposed to be used for the least developed territories, gave South Africa full power of administration and legislation over the territory, but required that South Africa promote the material and moral well-being and social progress of the people.

Following the League’s supersession by the United Nations in 1946, South Africa refused to surrender its earlier mandate to be replaced by a United Nations Trusteeship agreement, requiring closer international monitoring of the territory’s administration. Although the South African government wanted to incorporate “South-West Africa” into its territory, it never officially did so, although it was administered as the de facto ‘fifth province’, with the white minority having representation in the whites-only Parliament of South Africa. In 1959, the colonial forces in Windhoek sought to remove Black residents further away from the White area of town. The residents protested and the subsequent killing of eleven protesters spawned by the Namibian War of Independence with the formation of united Black opposition to South African rule as well as the township of Katutura.^[10]

During the 1960s, as the European powers granted independence to their colonies and trust territories in Africa, pressure mounted on South Africa to do so in Namibia, which was then South-West Africa. On the dismissal (1966) by the International Court of Justice of a complaint brought by Ethiopia and Liberia against South Africa’s continued presence in the territory, the U.N. General Assembly revoked South Africa’s mandate.

South-West Africa

Suidwes-Afrika
Südwestafrika
South-West Africa

Mandate of South Africa

←

1915 — 1990

→


Flag (1928-1990)	Coat of arms

Location of South-West Africa

Capital

Windhoek

Language(s)

English, Afrikaans, German (1984-1990)

Political structure

League of Nations Mandate

History

– Established

1915

– Treaty of Versailles

1919

– Independence

21 March 1990

Currency

South West African Pound (1920-1961)
South African Rand (1961-1993)

South-West Africa (Afrikaans: Suidwes-Afrika; German: Südwestafrika) was the name that was used for the modern day Republic of Namibia during the earlier eras when the territory was controlled by the German Empire and later by South Africa.

German colony

As a German colony from 1884 it was known as German South-West Africa (Deutsch-Südwestafrika). Germany had a difficult time administering the territory, which, owing to the Germans’ native policy, experienced many insurrections, especially those led by guerilla leader Jacob Morenga. The main port, Walvis Bay, and the Penguin islands had been annexed by Britain as part of the Cape Colony in 1878, and became part of the Union of South Africa in 1910.

As part of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, a corridor of land taken from the northern border of Bechuanaland, extending as far as the Zambezi river, was added to the colony. It was named the Caprivi Strip (Caprivizipfel) after the German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi.^[1]

During 1915 the region was taken from German control in the South-West Africa Campaign of World War I. After the war it was declared a League of Nations Mandate territory under the Treaty of Versailles, with the Union of South Africa responsible for the administration of South-West Africa, including Walvis Bay.

UN trust territory

The Mandate was supposed to become a United Nations Trust Territory when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the United Nations following World War II. The Union of South Africa objected to South-West Africa coming under UN control and refused to allow the territory’s transition to independence, regarding it as a fifth province (even though it was never actually incorporated into South Africa).^[2]

International law

These South African actions gave rise to several rulings at the International Court of Justice, which in 1950 ruled that South Africa was not obliged to convert South-West Africa into a UN trust territory, but was still bound by the League of Nations Mandate with the United Nations General Assembly assuming the supervisory role. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South-West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, South Africa.^[3] The General Assembly constituted the Committee on South-West Africa to perform the supervisory functions.^[4] In another advisory opinion issued in 1955, the Court further ruled that the General Assembly was not required to follow League of Nations voting procedures in determining questions concerning South-West Africa.^[5] In 1956, the Court further ruled that the Committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory.^[6] In 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with the Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the proper parties to bring the case.

2.NAMIBIA HISTORIC COLLECTIONS

Mandate terminated

In 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 (XXI) which declared the Mandate terminated and that South Africa had no further right to administer South-West Africa. In 1971, acting on a request for advisory opinion from the United Nations Security Council, the ICJ ruled that the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia was illegal and that South Africa was under an obligation to withdraw from Namibia immediately. It also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation to recognize the invalidity of any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia.^[9]

South-West Africa became known internationally as Namibia when the UN General Assembly changed the territory’s name by Resolution 2372 (XXII) of 12 June 1968.^[10]

There was a protracted struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South-West Africa People’s Organisation in 1960.

UNTAG HISTORIC COLLECTIONS

The UNTAG mandate under resolution 435 was primarily to create an environment suitable for free and fair elections.^[5] This included monitoring the ceasefire, keeping both SWAPO and SADF forces confined to their bases; assisting and monitoring the police and security forces, both maintaining law and order and preventing human rights violations; overseeing the return of refugees, detainees, and political prisoners to their homes; and the difficult task of organizing the elections and informing the Namibian people of their rights and responsibilities in a country with no tradition of democracy. Cedric Thornberry was the director of the UNTAG office, whose activities were overseen by the UN Special Representative to Namibia, Martti Ahtisaari of Finland, and its military component was commanded by Lieutenant-General Dewan Prem Chand of India.

In 1989 my friend join the UNTAG POLICE MONITORING,send a postcard to me from the UNTAG headquaters at Keepmanshoop,look the card below

UNTAG was based in Windhoek, now the capital of Namibia.

Civilian

The civilian component of the mission had several parts. Martti Ahtisaari’s UNTAG office oversaw all aspects of the mission and was specifically in charge of the diplomatic negotiations with Namibian political and military leaders, including the South African Administrator-General (AG), Louis Pienaar. The UN permitted AG Pienaar to continue his role during the transition period, after UN Commissioner for Namibia, Bernt Carlsson, was killed on Pan Am Flight 103 on December 21, 1988 en route to the signing ceremony in New York of the Namibia independence agreement.

The UN High Commissioner for Refugees, (UNHCR) was charged with monitoring and assisting the return of refugees from war-torn areas, as well as political exiles, and insurgents based in foreign countries. It both assisted in ensuring access to the country and with resettlement and reintegration into Namibian society.

UNTAG also provided and independent jurist to adjudicate the cases of detainees, political prisoners, and forced exiles. Carl Nörgaard of Denmark was appointed to this position in 1978 and fulfilled its duties when opportunity finally presented itself in 1989.

Another branch of UNTAG was charged specifically with planning, facilitating, and monitoring the elections. This group had to register and inform voters and candidates as well as provide for the secure transport and counting of ballots. Nearly 30 countries volunteered election monitors for polling stations and ballot counting.

The civilian police formed the largest part of the civilian component of UNTAG at 1500 personnel. These police were used both to monitor police and security force actions to prevent electoral intimidation or human rights violations as well as to assist with the establishment and maintenance of law and order in contested regions. 25 member states contributed police officers to the force, which was led by Steven Fanning of Ireland.

Military

Crew unload landrovers in Grootfontein for use by Finnish UNTAG troops

The military component was responsible for monitoring the ceasefire, disarming SWAPO militants, overseeing the withdrawal of the SADF, and controlling the borders. The force was composed of three enlarged infantry battalions contributed from Finland, Kenya, and Malaysia, with four reserve battalions stationed in their home countries from Bangladesh, Togo, Venezuela and Yugoslavia. It also included auxiliary units (e.g., transport, engineer, helicopter) from the United Kingdom, Australia, Denmark, Canada, Poland, the Federal Republic of Germany, Italy, and Spain. The military component also included a joint military/civilian medical unit (SMU) contributed by Switzerland. The Soviet Union and the United States also provided transport for the initial deployment of the military forces.

The military component also included military monitors contributed from 14 member states.

Setback

On April 1, 1989 — “D-Day” for the peace plan — UNTAG was still not fully deployed and the units that were deployed, mostly civilians and monitors, lacked equipment for both transportation and communication. Despite this, hopes were high, as the informal ceasefire had held for nearly seven months. However, in the early morning, SADF reported that heavily armed groups of SWAPO militants of the People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN) had begun crossing the border and establishing positions in northern Namibia which, if true, would have been a clear violation of the agreement that they should be confined to their Angolan bases. SWAPO initially denied that it had violated the terms of the agreement, and claimed that its fighters had been going to turn in weapons to UNTAG and had been attacked by the SADF.

UNTAG’s head, Martti Ahtisaari, came under pressure from British prime minister, Margaret Thatcher, who was visiting Southern Africa at the time, and from South African foreign minister, Pik Botha, to allow SADF forces to leave their bases and repel the SWAPO incursions. Ahtisaari quickly decided to allow a limited deployment, and would later describe this decision as his most difficult. He told The New York Times:

“We were in a restraining business, not releasing troops but trying to restrain them. Otherwise, the entire South African military might have gone after the Namibian guerillas, and I think they might have gone into Angola. By limiting South African retaliation to half a dozen army battalions and police units, the transition process was ultimately saved.”^[6]

A period of intense fighting followed with the SWAPO forces sustaining over 350 fatalities. Tense and rushed negotiations at Mount Etjo, a safari lodge in central Namibia, ended with a recommitment from both sides to the peace process and the leader of SWAPO, Sam Nujoma, calling for all SWAPO fighters to return to their bases in Angola. However, the SADF maintained positions very close to UNTAG collection points for SWAPO fighters and most therefore refused to approach and rejected UNTAG escorts. Clashes continued between SADF troops and SWAPO forces claiming to be returning to Angola. A new agreement was reached on April 20, 1989 when SADF forces withdrew to base for 60 hours, allowing SWAPO forces to withdraw peacefully. The SADF then had two weeks to confirm that SWAPO had indeed left Namibia and also to capture any weapons caches discovered.

This agreement was stuck to by both sides though Ahtisaari and the UN Secretary-General were nervous about the length of time the SADF were out of their bases, and pushed hard to get them back to barracks. Despite these reservations, the withdrawal and verification passed without incident and by the end UNTAG was almost fully deployed, albeit a month behind schedule.

Implementation

Despite the delay caused by the fighting of early April, the withdrawal of South African military personnel was achieved on schedule, reduced to 1500 by June 24, 1989. The remaining forces were confined to base until the confirmation of the election results in November, when they too were withdrawn. UNTAG also confirmed a second disarmament of the “civilian forces,” which numbered more than 10,000. These were made up of South African paid and controlled militia, who had been disarmed and disbanded before April 1, but were called up again to fight after SWAPO’s alleged violation of the terms of the agreement.

UNTAG was also charged with monitoring the SWAPO forces based in southern Angola and, despite numerous charges, mostly from the South Africans, that they were massing at the border or violating the border agreements, no allegations were confirmed by UNTAG intelligence, though all were investigated.

After the restriction of the SADF to base, the South West African Police (SWAPOL) were the only South African controlled force in Namibia and also the main forces maintaining law and order in the province. The UNTAG police forces were hard pressed to monitor all of the police forces, which were not always perfectly cooperative. Former members of the Koevoet, a paramilitary counter-insurgency group that was disbanded in 1989 and incorporated into the SWAPOL, proved to be the most problematic. According to the UN report, for the first several months, the former Koevoet units travelled heavily armed and were often reported to have behaved violently and engaged in intimidation, just as they had during the insurgency.

Elections

Sam Nujoma, the leader of SWAPO, was elected Namibia’s first president

In order to prepare the country for elections, UNTAG officials with the input of the leaders of the political parties drew up rules for political parties defining their role in the new democracy in Namibia. The UN Secretary-General also made a trip to Namibia, meeting with the political leaders encouraging national unity. UNTAG members and the political parties met with political leaders at all levels, to ensure that intimidation, vote buying, and other irregularities were not encouraged and to communicate that they would not be tolerated by the election observers or the party leaders. The Group also sponsored television, radio, and print media in a number of local languages aimed at educating the people about their rights and responsibilities in the upcoming election and in democracy. These efforts were successful and the election was declared free and fair by all the international observer groups and the UN Special Representative, Martti Ahtisaari.

UNTAG was also responsible for registering voters all over the vast and sparsely populated country. 70 registration centers were set up along with 110 mobile registration teams for the more remote areas. All Namibians over 18 were eligible to vote and registration exceeded expectations, illustrating enthusiasm across the country for the elections. UNTAG also registered 10 political parties for the election. Over 350 polling stations were set up across the country and personnel from the police, military, civilian elements of UNTAG were set on election monitoring duty, along with hundreds of extra election specialists contributed from more than 25 member states.

Voting went smoothly with reports of intimidation decreasing as the election approached. Voters stood in lines up to half a mile long in some places to vote, but in the end participation of 97% was reported with only slightly more than 1% of ballots being declared invalid.

Final months

After the elections, AG Pienaar continued his role alongside UN Special Representative Ahtisaari and UNTAG. One of Pienaar’s final acts was to extend the amnesty against future prosecution granted to Namibian exiles in June 1989 to cover South African officials and security forces, including the SADF. A Constituent Assembly (CA) based on the results of the election met to consider a draft Constitution, which was adopted on February 9, 1990. The CA determined that March 21, 1990 would be Namibia’s independence day.^[8]

The early months of 1990 saw a steady decrease of UNTAG forces as well as the withdrawal of the final SADF forces. By the independence date all UNTAG forces had been withdrawn with the exception of some Kenyan forces to train the new Namibian Army under an independent agreement, and some UN diplomatic personnel to assist the newly independent state.

Conclusions

UNTAG was considered very successful by the UN and its member organizations. Namibia became a free democracy, without the racial segregation seen under the apartheid system. The security problems had decreased during the UNTAG deployment and the elections had gone off better than expected. Despite tensions, after the elections, the Namibian and South African governments had established formal diplomatic relations. Furthermore, worries about costs were proven unfounded as UNTAG was well under the original budget of US$700 million, and even well under the reduced budget passed by the Security Council of US$416 million, costing less than US$368.6 million. There were 19 fatalities to UN personnel in just over a year.^[9]

The territory became the independent Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990, with Walvis Bay only becoming part of Namibia

NAMIBIA INDEPENDENT HISTORIC COLLECTIONS

Windhoek skyline

By February 9, 1990, the Constituent Assembly had drafted and adopted a constitution. Independence Day on March 21, 1990, was attended by numerous international representatives, including the main players, the UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar and President of South Africa F W de Klerk, who jointly conferred formal independence on Namibia.

Sam Nujoma was sworn in as the first President of Namibia watched by Nelson Mandela (who had been released from prison shortly beforehand) and representatives from 147 countries, including 20 heads of state.^[16]

On March 1, 1994, the coastal enclave of Walvis Bay and 12 offshore islands were transferred to Namibia by South Africa. This followed three years of bilateral negotiations between the two governments and the establishment of a transitional Joint Administrative Authority (JAA) in November 1992 to administer the 780 km² (300 square mile) territory. The peaceful resolution of this territorial dispute was praised by the international community, as it fulfilled the provisions of the UNSCR 432 (1978), which declared Walvis Bay to be an integral part of Namibia.

Post independence

Namibia’s founding president, Sam Nujoma.

Since independence Namibia has successfully completed the transition from white minority apartheid rule to a democratic society. Multiparty democracy was introduced and has been maintained, with local, regional and national elections held regularly. Several registered political parties are active and represented in the National Assembly, although Swapo Party has won every election since independence.^[17] The transition from the 15-year rule of President Sam Nujoma to his successor, Hifikepunye Pohamba in 2005 went smoothly.^[18]

Namibian government has promoted a policy of national reconciliation and issued an amnesty for those who had fought on either side during the liberation war. The civil war in Angola had a limited impact on Namibians living in the north of the country. In 1998, Namibia Defence Force (NDF) troops were sent to the Democratic Republic of the Congo as part of a Southern African Development Community (SADC) contingent. In August 1999, a secessionist attempt in the northeastern Caprivi region was successfully quashed.

Re-election of Sam Nujoma

Sam Nujoma won the presidential elections of 1994 with 76.34% of the votes. There was only one other candidate, Mishake Muyongo of the DTA. ^[19]

In 1998, with one year until the scheduled presidential election when Sam Nujoma would not be allowed to participate in since he had already served the two terms that the constitution allows, SWAPO amended the constitution, allowing three terms instead of two. They were able to do this since SWAPO had a two-thirds majority in both the National Assembly of Namibia and the National Council, which is the minimum needed to amend the constitution.

Sam Nujoma was reelected as president in 1999, winning the election, that had a 62.1% turnout with 76.82%. Second was Ben Ulenga from the Congress of Democrats (COD), that won 10.49% of the votes.

Nujoma was succeeded as President of Namibia by Hifikepunye Pohamba in 2005.^[19]

Ben Ulenga is a former SWAPO member and Deputy Minister of Environment and Tourism, and High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. ^[20] He left SWAPO and became one of the founding members of COD in 1998, after clashing with his party on several questions. He did not approve of the amendment ot the constitution, and criticised Namibia’s involvement in Congo.

Land reform

One of SWAPO’s policies, that had been formulated long before the party came into power, was land reform. Namibia’s colonial and Apartheid past had resulted in a situation where about 20 percent of the population owned about 75 percent of all the land. ^[21] Land was supposed to be redistributed mostly from the white minority to previously landless communities and ex-combatants. The land reform has been slow, mainly because Namibia’s constitution only allows land to be bought from farmers willing to sell. Also, the price of land is very high in Namibia, which further complicates the matter.

President Sam Nujoma has been vocal in his support of Zimbabwe and its president Robert Mugabe. During the land crisis in Zimbabwe, where the government by force confiscated white farmers’ land using violent methods, fears arose among the white minority and the western world that the same method would be used in Namibia. This has not been the case so far.

A Congolese soldier during the Second Congo War, 2001.

Involvement in conflicts in Angola and DRC

In 1999 Namibia signed a mutual defence pact with its northern neighbour Angola.^[21] This affected the Angolan Civil War that had been ongoing since Angola’s independence in 1975. Both being leftist movements, SWAPO wanted to support the ruling party MPLA in Angola to fight the rebel movement UNITA, whose stronghold was in southern Angola. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking UNITA.

The Angolan civil war resulted in a large number of Angolan refugees coming to Namibia. At its peak in 2001 there were over 30,000 Angolan refugees in Namibia. The calmer situation in Angola has made it possible for many of them to return to their home with the help of UNHCR, and in 2004 only 12,600 remained in Namibia. ^[22] Most of them reside in the refugee camp Osire north of Windhoek.

Namibia also intervened in the Second Congo War, sending troops in support of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s president Laurent-Désiré Kabila.

The Caprivi conflict

The Caprivi conflict was an armed conflict between the Caprivi Liberation Army (CLA), a rebel group working for the secession of the Caprivi Strip, and the Namibian government. It started in 1994 and had its peak in the early hours of August 2, 1999 when CLA launched an attack in Katima Mulilo, the provincial capital of the Caprivi Region. Forces of the Namibian government struck back and arrested a number of alleged CLA supporters. The Caprivi conflict has led to the longest^[23] and largest^[24] trial in the history of Namibia, the Caprivi treason trial.

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The Liechtenstein Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 7, 2011 | Leave a comment

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WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

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SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

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THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

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WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Liechtenstein Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The Liechtenstein Collections

1.Postal History

2.Numismatic

3.Pictures

Frame two:

The Liechtenstein Historic Collections

Principality of Liechtenstein

Fürstentum Liechtenstein


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: Für Gott, Fürst und Vaterland
For God, Prince and Fatherland

Anthem:

Oben am jungen Rhein
“Up on the Young Rhine”

[[:Template:map caption]]

Location of Liechtenstein (green)

Capital Vaduz
47°08.5′N 9°31.4′E / 47.1417°N 9.5233°E / 47.1417; 9.5233

Largest city Schaan

Official language(s)

German

Demonym Liechtensteiner (male), Liechtensteinerin (female)

Government Parliamentary democracy under constitutional monarchy

– Prince Hans-Adam II

– Regent Alois

– Prime Minister Klaus Tschütscher

– Landtag Speaker Arthur Brunhart

Independence as principality

– Treaty of Pressburg 1806

– Independence from the German Confederation 1866

Area

– Total 160.475 km² (211th)
61.960 sq mi

– Water (%) negligible

Population

– 2009 estimate 35,789^[1] (206th)

– 2000 census 33,307

– Density 221/km² (52nd)
572/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate

– Total $3.250 billion^[2]^[3]

– Per capita $91,697^[2]^[3]^[4] (1st)

GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate

– Total $4.929 billion^[2]^[3]

– Per capita $139,068^[2]^[3]^[4] (1st)

HDI (2010) 0.891^[5] (very high) (6th)

Currency Swiss franc (CHF)

Time zone CET (UTC+1)

– Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)

Drives on the right

The Principality of Liechtenstein (pronounced /ˈlɪktənstaɪn/ ( listen) LIK-tən-styn; German: Fürstentum Liechtenstein, German pronunciation: [ˈfʏʁstn̩tuːm ˈlɪçtn̩ʃtaɪn]^[6]) is a doubly landlocked alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland to the west and south and by Austria to the east. Its area is just over 160 km² (about 61.7 square miles), and it has an estimated population of 35,000. Its capital is Vaduz; the biggest town is Schaan. Liechtenstein has the highest gross domestic product per person in the world according to the CIA World Factbook.^[7]

Liechtenstein is the smallest yet the richest German-speaking country in the world and the only alpine country to lie entirely within the Alps. It is the only German-speaking country not to share a common border with Germany. It is a constitutional monarchy divided into 11 municipalities. Much of Liechtenstein’s terrain is mountainous, making it a winter sports destination. Many cultivated fields and small farms characterize its landscape both in the north (Oberland, upper land) and in the south (Unterland, lower land). The country has a strong financial sector located in the capital, Vaduz, and has been identified as a tax haven. It is a member of the European Free Trade Association and part of the European Economic Area but not of the European Union.

History

At one time, the territory was part of the ancient Roman province of Raetia. For centuries this territory, geographically removed from European strategic interests, had little impact on European history. Prior to the reign of its current dynasty, the region was enfeoffed to a line of the counts of Hohenems.

The Liechtenstein dynasty, from which the principality takes its name, comes from Castle Liechtenstein in Lower Austria, which the family possessed from at least 1140 until the 13th century, and from 1807 onward. Through the centuries, the dynasty acquired vast tracts of land, predominantly in Moravia, Lower Austria, Silesia, and Styria, though these territories were all held in fief under other more senior feudal lords, particularly under various lines of the Habsburg family, whom several Liechtenstein princes served as close advisers. Thus, without any territory held directly under the Imperial throne, the Liechtenstein dynasty was unable to meet a primary requirement to qualify for a seat in the Imperial diet (parliament), the Reichstag.

Vaduz, the capital and second-largest town

The family yearned for the added power a seat in the Imperial government would bring and therefore sought to acquire lands that would be unmittelbar, or held without any feudal personage other than the Holy Roman Emperor having rights on the land. After some time, the family was able to arrange the purchase of the minuscule Herrschaft (“Lordship”) of Schellenberg and county of Vaduz (in 1699 and 1712 respectively) from the Hohenems. Tiny Schellenberg and Vaduz had exactly the political status required: no feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and the suzerain Emperor.

On 23 January 1719, after the lands had been purchased, Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, decreed that Vaduz and Schellenberg were united and elevated the newly formed territory to the dignity of Fürstentum (principality) with the name “Liechtenstein” in honour of “[his] true servant, Anton Florian of Liechtenstein”. It was on this date that Liechtenstein became a sovereign member state of the Holy Roman Empire. It is a testament to the pure political expediency of the purchases that the Princes of Liechtenstein did not set foot in their new principality for over 120 years.

Vaduz Castle, overlooking the capital, is still home to the Prince of Liechtenstein

As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, by 1806 the Holy Roman Empire was under the control of French emperor Napoleon I. Napoleon dissolved the empire; this had broad consequences for Liechtenstein: imperial, legal and political mechanisms broke down. The state ceased to owe obligations to any feudal lord beyond its borders.

Modern publications generally (although incorrectly) attribute Liechtenstein’s sovereignty to these events. In reality, its prince merely became suzerain, as well as remaining sovereign lord. From 25 July 1806 when the Confederation of the Rhine was founded, the Prince of Liechtenstein was a member, in fact a vassal of its hegemon, styled protector, French Emperor Napoleon I, until the dissolution of the confederation on 19 October 1813.

Soon afterward, Liechtenstein joined the German Confederation (20 June 1815 – 24 August 1866) which was presided over by the Emperor of Austria.

Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein

Then, in 1818, Johann I granted the territory a limited constitution. 1818 also saw the first visit of a member of the house of Liechtenstein, Prince Alois; however, the first visit by a sovereign prince would not occur until 1842.

Developments during the 19th century included:

In 1836, the first factory was opened, making ceramics.
In 1861, the Savings and Loans Bank was founded, as was the first cotton-weaving mill.
Two bridges over the Rhine were built in 1868, and in 1872 a railway line across Liechtenstein was constructed.

20th century

Until the end of World War I, Liechtenstein was closely tied first to the Austrian Empire and later to Austria-Hungary; the ruling princes continued to derive much of their wealth from estates in the Habsburg territories, and they spent much of their time at their two palaces in Vienna. The economic devastation caused by this war forced the country to conclude a customs and monetary union with its other neighbour, Switzerland. Liechtenstein’s army was disbanded in 1868 for financial reasons.

At the time of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, it was argued that Liechtenstein, as a feoff of the Holy Roman Empire, was no longer bound to the emerging independent state of Austria, since the latter did not consider itself as the legal successor to the empire. This is partly contradicted by the coeval Liechtenstein perception that the dethroned Austro-Hungarian Emperor still maintained an abstract heritage of the Holy Roman Empire.

Franz I, Prince of Liechtenstein.

In early 1938, just after the annexation of Austria into Greater Nazi Germany, 84 year old Prince Franz I abdicated, naming his 31-year-old third cousin, Prince Franz Joseph, as his successor. His wife, whom he had married in 1929, was a wealthy Jewish woman from Vienna, and local Liechtenstein Nazis had already identified her as their Jewish “problem”. Although Liechtenstein had no official Nazi party, a Nazi sympathy movement had been simmering for years within its National Union party.^[8]

During World War II, Liechtenstein remained officially neutral, looking to neighboring Switzerland for assistance and guidance, while family treasures within the war zone were taken to Liechtenstein for safekeeping. At the close of the conflict, Czechoslovakia and Poland, acting to seize what they considered to be German possessions, expropriated the entirety of the Liechtenstein dynasty’s hereditary lands and possessions in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia — the princes of Liechtenstein lived in Vienna until the Anschluss of 1938. The expropriations (subject to modern legal dispute at the International Court of Justice) included over 1,600 km² (618 sq mi) of agricultural and forest land, and several family castles and palaces.

Citizens of Liechtenstein were forbidden to enter Czechoslovakia during the Cold War. More recently the diplomatic conflict revolving around the controversial post-war Beneš decrees has resulted in Liechtenstein not sharing international relations with the Czech Republic or Slovakia. The diplomatic relations were established between Liechtenstein and the Czech Republic on 13 July 2009,^[9]^[10]^[11] and with Slovakia on 9 December 2009.^[12]

Liechtenstein gave asylum to about 501 soldiers of the First Russian National Army (a collaborationist Russian force within the German Wehrmacht) at the close of World War II; this is commemorated by a monument at the border town of Hinterschellenberg. The act of granting asylum was no small matter as the country was poor and had difficulty feeding and caring for such a large group of refugees. Eventually, Argentina agreed to resettle the asylum seekers permanently. In contrast, the British and Americans repatriated the Russians who had fought for Germany to the USSR, and many of them perished in the Gulag.

In dire financial straits following the war, the Liechtenstein dynasty often resorted to selling family artistic treasures, including the priceless portrait “Ginevra de’ Benci” by Leonardo da Vinci, which was purchased by the National Gallery of Art of the United States in 1967. Liechtenstein prospered, however, during the decades following, as it used its low corporate tax rates to draw many companies to the country.

The Prince of Liechtenstein is the world’s sixth wealthiest leader with an estimated wealth of USD $5 billion.^[13] The country’s population enjoys one of the world’s highest standards of living.

Government

The Government building in Vaduz.

The Constitution of Liechtenstein was adopted in March 2003, replacing the previous 1921 constitution which had established Liechtenstein as a constitutional monarchy headed by the reigning prince of the Princely House of Liechtenstein. A parliamentary system had been established, although the reigning prince retained substantial political authority.

The reigning prince is the head of state and represents Liechtenstein in its international relations (although Switzerland has taken responsibility for much of Liechtenstein’s diplomatic relations). The prince may veto laws adopted by parliament. The prince can call referendums, propose new legislation, and dissolve parliament, although dissolution of parliament may be subject to a referendum.^[14]

Executive authority is vested in a collegiate government comprising the head of government (prime minister) and four government councilors (ministers). The head of government and the other ministers are appointed by the prince upon the proposal and concurrence of parliament, thus reflecting the partisan balance of parliament. The constitution stipulates that at least two members of the government be chosen from each of the two regions.^[15] The members of the government are collectively and individually responsible to parliament; parliament may ask the prince to remove an individual minister or the entire government.

Legislative authority is vested in the unicameral Landtag made up of 25 members elected for maximum four-year terms according to a proportional representation formula. Fifteen members are elected from the “Oberland” (Upper Country or region) and ten members are elected from the “Unterland” (Lower Country or region).^[16] Parties must receive at least 8% of the national vote to win seats in parliament. Parliament proposes and approves a government, which is formally appointed by the prince. Parliament may also pass votes of no confidence in the entire government or individual members.

Parliament elects from among its members a “Landesausschuss” (National Committee) made up of the president of the parliament and four additional members. The National Committee is charged with performing parliamentary oversight functions. Parliament can call for referendums on proposed legislation. Parliament shares the authority to propose new legislation with the prince and with the number of citizens required for an initiative referendum.^[17]

Judicial authority is vested in the Regional Court at Vaduz, the Princely High Court of Appeal at Vaduz, the Princely Supreme Court, the Administrative Court, and the State Court. The State Court rules on the conformity of laws with the constitution and has five members elected by parliament.

New constitution

In a national referendum in March 2003, nearly two-thirds of the electorate voted in support of Hans-Adam II’s proposed new constitution to replace the 1921 one. The proposed constitution was criticised by many, including the Council of Europe, as expanding the powers of the monarchy (continuing the power to veto any law, and allowing the prince to dismiss the government or any minister). The prince threatened that if the constitution failed, he would, among other things, convert some of the royal property for commercial use and move to Austria.^[18] The royal family and the prince enjoy tremendous public support inside the nation, and the resolution passed with about 64% in favour.

Geography

Satellite image

Grauspitz, the highest peak in Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein is situated in the Upper Rhine valley of the European Alps and is bordered to the east by Austria and to the west by Switzerland. The entire western border of Liechtenstein is formed by the Rhine. Measured north to south, the country is about 24 km (15 mi) long. Its highest point, the Grauspitz, is 2,599 m (8,527 ft). Despite its Alpine location, prevailing southerly winds make the climate of Liechtenstein comparatively mild. In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports.

New surveys using more accurate measurements of the country’s borders in 2006 have set its area at 160 km² (61.776 sq mi), with borders of 77.9 km (48.4 mi).^[19] Thus, Liechtenstein discovered in 2006 that its borders are 1.9 km (1.2 mi) longer than previously thought.^[20]

Liechtenstein is one of only two doubly landlocked countries in the world^[21]—being a landlocked country wholly surrounded by other landlocked countries (the other is Uzbekistan). Liechtenstein is the sixth-smallest independent nation in the world by land area.

The principality of Liechtenstein is divided into 11 communes called Gemeinden (singular Gemeinde). The Gemeinden mostly consist only of a single town or village. Five of them (Eschen, Gamprin, Mauren, Ruggell, and Schellenberg) fall within the electoral district Unterland (the lower county), and the remainder (Balzers, Planken, Schaan, Triesen, Triesenberg, and Vaduz) within Oberland (the upper county).

Economy

Looking northward at Vaduz city-centre.

City-centre with Kunstmuseum (Liechtenstein Art Museum).

Despite (or perhaps because of) its limited natural resources, Liechtenstein is one of the few countries in the world with more registered companies than citizens; it has developed a prosperous, highly industrialized free-enterprise economy and boasts a financial service sector as well as a living standard which compares favorably with those of the urban areas of Liechtenstein’s large European neighbours.

Relatively low business taxes—the maximum tax rate is 20%^[22]—as well as easy Rules of Incorporation have induced about 73,700 holding (or so-called ‘letter box’) companies to establish registered offices in Liechtenstein. This provides about 30% of Liechtenstein’s state revenue. Liechtenstein also generates revenue from Stiftungen (“foundations”), which are financial entities created to increase the privacy of nonresident foreigners’ financial holdings. The foundation is registered in the name of a Liechtensteiner, often a lawyer.

Recently, Liechtenstein has shown strong determination to prosecute international money-launderers and has worked to promote the country’s image as a legitimate finance center. In February 2008, the country’s LGT Bank was implicated in a tax-fraud scandal in Germany, which strained the ruling family’s relationship with the German government. Crown Prince Alois has accused the German government of trafficking in stolen goods. This refers to its $7.3 million purchase of private banking information illegally offered by a former employee of LGT Group.^[23]^[24] However, the United States Senate‘s subcommittee on tax haven banks said that the LGT bank, which is owned by the royal family, and on whose board they serve, “is a willing partner, and an aider and abettor to clients trying to evade taxes, dodge creditors or defy court orders.”^[25]

Liechtenstein participates in a customs union with Switzerland and employs the Swiss franc as national currency. The country imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union) since May 1995. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe. Since 2002, Liechtenstein’s rate of unemployment has doubled. In 2004, it stood at 2.2% in the third quarter. Currently, there is only one hospital in Liechtenstein, the Liechtensteinisches Landesspital in Vaduz. The gross domestic product (GDP) on a purchasing power parity basis is $4.16 billion,^[21] or $118,000 per person.

Liechtenstein is a large producer of ceramics and is the world’s largest producer of sausage casings, potassium storage units and false teeth. Other industries include electronics, textiles, precision instruments, metal manufacturing, power tools, anchor bolts, calculators, pharmaceuticals, and food products. Its most recognizable international company and largest employer is Hilti, a manufacturer of direct fastening systems and other high-end power tools. Liechtenstein produces wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, dairy products, livestock, and wine. Tourism accounts for a large portion of the country’s economy.

Taxation

The government of Liechtenstein taxes both personal and business income and principal (wealth). The basic rate of personal income tax is 1.2%. When combined with the additional income tax imposed by the communes, the combined income tax rate is 17.82%.^[26] An additional income tax of 4.3% is levied on all employees under the country’s social security program. This rate is higher for the self-employed, up to a maximum of 11%, making the maximum income tax rate about 29% in total. The basic tax rate on wealth is 0.06% per annum, and the combined total rate is 0.89%. The maximum business income tax rate is 18–20%.^[21]

Liechtenstein’s gift and estate taxes vary depending on the relationship the recipient has to the giver and the amount of the inheritance. The tax ranges between 0.5% and 0.75% for spouses and children and 18% to 27% for non-related recipients. The estate tax is progressive.

The 2008 Liechtenstein tax affair is a series of tax investigations in numerous countries whose governments suspect that some of their citizens may have evaded tax obligations by using banks and trusts in Liechtenstein; the affair broke open with the biggest complex of investigations ever initiated for tax evasion in the Federal Republic of Germany.^[27] It was also seen as an attempt to put pressure on Liechtenstein, then one of the remaining uncooperative tax havens – along with Andorra and Monaco – as identified by the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 2007.^[28] On 27 May 2009 the OECD removed Liechtenstein from the blacklist of uncooperative countries.^[29]

In August 2009, the British Government Department, HM Revenue & Customs, agreed with the Alpine tax haven to start exchanging information. It is believed that up to 5,000 British investors have roughly £3billion stashed in accounts and trusts in the country.^[30]

Demographics

Administrative divisions of Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein is the fourth smallest country of Europe, after Vatican City, Monaco, and San Marino. Its population is primarily Alemannic-speaking ethnic Germans, although its resident population is approximately one third foreign-born, primarily German speakers from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, other Swiss, Italians, and Turks. Foreign-born people make up two-thirds of the country’s workforce. 209 members of the population are unemployed.^{[citation needed]}

The official language is German; most speak Alemannic, a dialect of German that is highly divergent from Standard German but closely related to those dialects spoken in neighbouring regions such as Vorarlberg, Austria. In Triesenberg, a dialect promoted by the municipality is spoken. According to the 2000 census, 87.9% of the population is Christian, of whom 78.4% adhere to the Roman Catholic faith, while about 8% are Protestant. Compared to the 1990 census, the percentage of Christians fell, whereas Muslims and the undeclared/no religion more than doubled in size.^[31] According to a 2009 Pew Research Center report, Muslims constitute approximately 4.8% of the population.^[32]

Religion ^[33]	2000	1990
Catholics	78.4 %	84.9 %
Reformed Church	7.9%	9.4 %
Christian-orthodox Churches	1.1%	0.7 %
Other Christian Churches	0.4%	0.1 %
Muslims	4.8%	2.4 %
Jews	0.1%	0.0 %
Other religions	0.3%	0.1 %
Undeclared / no religion	7.0 %	2.4 %
Total:	100%	100%

Liechtensteiners have an average life expectancy at birth of 79.68 years (76.1 for males; 83.28 for females). The infant mortality rate is 4.64 deaths per 1,000 live births, according to recent estimates. The literacy rate of Liechtenstein is 100%.^[21] The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Liechtenstein’s education as the 10th best in the world.^[34]

Transport

Map of the Principality of Liechtenstein

There are about 250 km (155 mi) of paved roadway within Liechtenstein, with 90 km (56 mi) of marked bicycle paths.

9.5 km (5.9 mi) of railway connects Austria and Switzerland through Liechtenstein. The country’s railways are administered by the Austrian Federal Railways as part of the route between Feldkirch, Austria, and Buchs, Switzerland. Liechtenstein is nominally within the Austrian Verkehrsverbund Vorarlberg ^[35] tariff region. There are four stations in Liechtenstein, namely Schaan-Vaduz, Forst Hilti, Nendeln, and Schaanwald, served by an irregularly stopping train service that runs between Feldkirch and Buchs provided by the Austrian Federal Rail Service. While EuroCity and other long distance international trains also travel along the route, they do not normally stop at the stations within the borders of Liechtenstein.

Liechtenstein Bus is a subsidiary of the Swiss Postbus system, but separately run, and connects to the Swiss bus network at Buchs and at Sargans. Buses also run to the Austrian town of Feldkirch.

Liechtenstein has no airport; the nearest large airport is Zürich. There is a small heliport at Balzers^[36]^[37] available for charter helicopter flights.

Culture

Vineyard on the outskirts of Vaduz.

As a result of its small size, Liechtenstein has been strongly affected by external cultural influences, most notably those originating in the southern German-speaking areas of Europe, including Austria, Bavaria, Switzerland, and specifically Tirol and Vorarlberg. The “Historical Society of the Principality of Liechtenstein” plays a role in preserving the culture and history of the country.

The largest museum is the Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, an international museum of modern and contemporary art with an important international art collection. The building by the Swiss architects Morger, Degelo and Kerez is a landmark in Vaduz. It was completed in November 2000 and forms a “black box” of tinted concrete and black basalt stone. The museum collection is also the national art collection of Liechtenstein.

The other important museum is the Liechtenstein National Museum (Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum) showing permanent exhibition on the cultural and natural history of Liechtenstein as well as special exhibitions. There is also a stamp museum and a ski museum.

The most famous historical sites are Vaduz Castle, Gutenberg Castle, the Red House and the ruins of Schellenberg.

Music and theatre are an important part of the culture. There are numerous music organizations such as the Liechtenstein Musical Company, the annual Guitar Days and the International Josef Gabriel Rheinberger Society, which play in two main theatres.

The Private Art Collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein, one of the world’s leading private art collections, is shown at the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna.

Amateur radio is a hobby of some nationals and visitors. However, unlike virtually every other sovereign nation, Liechtenstein does not have its own ITU Prefix. It uses Switzerland’s callsign prefixes (typically “HB”) followed by a zero.

Sports

Marco Büchel, the first Alpine skier to compete at six Winter Olympics.

Liechtenstein football teams play in the Swiss football leagues. The Liechtenstein Cup allows access for one Liechtenstein team each year to the UEFA Europa League; FC Vaduz, a team playing in the Swiss Challenge League, the second division in Swiss football, is the most successful team in the Cup, and scored their greatest success in the European Cup Winners’ Cup in 1996 when they tied and defeated the Latvian team FC Universitate Riga by 1–1 and 4–2, to go on to a lucrative fixture against Paris St Germain, which they lost 0–4 and 0–3.

The Liechtenstein national football team is regarded as an easy target for any team drawn against them; this was the basis for a book about Liechtenstein’s unsuccessful qualifying campaign for the 2002 World Cup by British author, Charlie Connelly. In one surprising week during autumn 2004, however, the team managed a 2–2 draw with Portugal, who only a few months earlier had been the losing finalists in the European Championships. Four days later, the Liechtenstein team traveled to Luxembourg, where they defeated the home team 4-0 in a 2006 World Cup qualifying match. In the qualification stage of the European Championship 2008, Liechtenstein beat Latvia 1-0, a result which prompted the resignation of the Latvian coach. They went on to beat Iceland 3-0 on 17 October 2007, which is considered one of the most dramatic losses of the Icelandic national football team. On 7 September 2010, they came within seconds of a famous 1–1 draw against Scotland in Glasgow, having led 1–0 for most of the second half. They lost 2–1 thanks to a Scotland goal by Stephen McManus in the 97th minute.

As an alpine country, the main sporting opportunity for Liechtensteiners to excel is in winter sports such as downhill skiing: the country’s single ski area is Malbun. Hanni Wenzel won two gold medals and one silver medal in the 1980 Winter Olympics (she won bronze in 1976), and her brother Andreas won one silver medal in 1980 and one bronze medal in 1984 in the giant slalom event. With nine medals overall (all in alpine skiing), Liechtenstein has won more Olympic medals per capita than any other nation.^[38] It is the smallest nation to win a medal in any Olympics, Winter or Summer, and the only nation to win a medal in the Winter Games but not in the Summer Games. Other notable skiers from Liechtenstein are Marco Büchel, Willi Frommelt, Paul Frommelt and Ursula Konzett.

Security and defense

The Liechtenstein National Police is responsible for keeping order within the country. It consists of 85 field officers and 33 civilian staff. All officers are equipped with small arms.^[39] The country has an extremely low crime rate, with the last murder having taken place, according to an officer who was serving in 2007, “about ten years ago.”^[39] Liechtenstein’s prison holds few, if any, inmates, and those with sentences over two years are transferred to Austrian jurisdiction.^[39] The Liechtenstein National Police maintains a trilateral treaty with Austria and Switzerland that enables close cross-border cooperation among the police forces of the three countries.^[40]

Liechtenstein follows a policy of neutrality and is one of few countries in the world that maintains no military. The army was abolished soon after the Austro-Prussian War in which Liechtenstein fielded an army of 80 men, although they were not involved in any fighting. The demise of the German Confederation in that war freed Liechtenstein from its international obligation to maintain an army, and parliament seized this opportunity and refused to provide funding for an army. The prince objected, as such a move would leave the country defenseless, but relented on 12 February 1868 and disbanded the force. The last soldier to serve under the colours of Liechtenstein died in 1939 at age 95.^[41] Under an agreement with Switzerland, military defense is provided by the Swiss Army.

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The Luxembourg Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 7, 2011 | Leave a comment

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

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WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

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THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Luxembourg Collections Exhibition

Frame One :

The Luxembourg Collections

1.Postal History

2.Numismatic

3.Pictures

Frame two:

The Luxembourg Historic Collections


Austrasia				Frisian Kingdom
Carolingian Empire ca 800–843
	Cty of Flanders 9th century – 1384	Lotharingia, then Lower Lorraine 855–954–977
Bishopric of Liège + Imperial Abbey of Stavelot- Malmedy + Duchy of Bouillon10th century – 1795	Cty of Flanders 9th century – 1384	Other feudal states	County of Luxembourg 963–1384	10th–14th centuries
	Burgundian Netherlands		Duchy of Luxembourg 1384–1443	1384–1482
	Burgundian Netherlands			1384–1482
	Habsburg Netherlands 1482–1795 (Seventeen Provinces, Burgundian Circle)
	Spanish (Southern) Netherlands 1549–1713
				Dutch Republic 1581–1795
	Austrian Netherlands 1713–95
Liège Revolution 1789–92	United States of Belgium 1790

French Republic 1795–1804French Empire 1804–15				Batavian Republic 1795–1806
French Republic 1795–1804French Empire 1804–15				Kingdom of Holland 1806–10

			United Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1815
Kingdom of Belgium since 1830			United Kingdom of the Netherlands since 1815
Kingdom of Belgium since 1830			Grand Duchy of Luxembourg since 1839

The history of Luxembourg is inherently entwined with the histories of surrounding countries, peoples, and ruling dynasties. Over time, the territory of Luxembourg has been eroded, whilst its ownership has changed repeatedly, and its political independence has grown gradually.

Although recorded Luxembourgian history dates back to Roman times, the history of Luxembourg proper is considered to begin in 963. The following five centuries saw the emergence of the powerful House of Luxembourg, the extinction of which would put an end to Luxembourgian independence. After a brief spell of Burgundian rule, Luxembourg fell into the hands of the Habsburgs in 1477.

After the Eighty Years’ War, Luxembourg became a part of the Southern Netherlands, which would pass to the Austrian line of the Habsburg dynasty in 1713. After occupation by Revolutionary France, the 1815 Treaty of Paris transformed Luxembourg into a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. The treaty also partitioned Luxembourg, which had been done in 1659 and would be done again in 1839. Although these treaties greatly reduced Luxembourg’s territory, they increased Luxembourg’s independence, which was confirmed after the Luxembourg Crisis in 1867.

In the following decades, Luxembourg fell further into Germany’s sphere of influence, particularly after the creation of a separate ruling house in 1890. Luxembourg was occupied by Germany from 1914 until 1918 and again from 1940 until 1944. Since the Second World War, Luxembourg has become one of the world’s richest countries, buoyed by a booming financial services sector, political stability, and European integration.

Ancient Luxembourg (before 963)

In the territory now covered by the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, there is evidence of primitive inhabitants right back to the Paleolithic or old stone age over 35,000 years ago. The oldest artifacts from this period are decorated bones found at Oetrange.[2]

However, the first real evidence of civilization is from the Neolithic or 5th millennium BC when houses began to appear. Traces have been found in the south of Luxembourg at Grevenmacher, Diekirch, Aspelt and Weiler-la-Tour. The dwellings were made of a combination of tree trunks for the basic structure, mud-clad wickerwork walls, and roofs of thatched reeds or straw.[3] Pottery from this period has been found near Remerschen.[4]

While there is not much evidence of communities in Luxembourg at the beginning of the Bronze Age, a number of sites dating back to the period between the 13th and the 8th century BC provide evidence of dwellings and reveal artifacts such as pottery, knives and jewelry. These include Nospelt, Dalheim, Mompach and Remerschen.

Celtic Luxembourg existed during the period from roughly 600 BC until 100 AD, when the Celts inhabited what is now the territory of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The Celts inhabited large areas of Europe from the Danube to the Rhine and Rhône during this time. It was around 100 BC that the Treveri, one of the Celtic tribes, entered a period of prosperity. They constructed a number of fortified settlements or oppida near the Moselle valley in what is now southern Luxembourg, western Germany and eastern France.[1]

The Celtic civilization reached its height in the 1st century BC, prior to the Roman conquest in 54 BC. Most of the evidence from that period has been discovered in tombs, many closely associated with Titelberg, a 50 ha site which reveals much about the dwellings and handicrafts of the period.

The first known reference to the territory in modern Luxembourg was by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War.^[1]

The Celtic tribe in what is now Luxembourg during and after the La Tène period was known as the Treveri. By and large, the Treveri were more co-operative with the Romans, who completed their occupation in 53 BC under Julius Caesar, than most Gallic tribes. Two 1st-century revolts did not permanently damage their cordial relations with Rome, and the Treveri adapted readily to Roman civilization.

Medieval Luxembourg (963 – 1477)

Early settlements in the area of present-day Luxembourg City before the 10th century with the church Saint-Saveur, today St.Micheal, built in 987

The history of Luxembourg properly began with the construction of Luxembourg Castle in the Middle Ages. It was Siegfried I, Count of Ardennes who traded some of his ancestral lands with the monks of the Abbey of St. Maximin in Trier in 963 for an ancient, supposedly Roman, fort by the name of Lucilinburhuc. Modern historians explain the etymology of the word with Letze, meaning fortification which might have referred to either the remains of a Roman watchtower or to a primitive refuge of the early Middle Ages.

Around this fort a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small but important state of great strategic value to France, Germany and the Netherlands. Luxembourg’s fortress, located on a rocky outcrop known as the Bock, was steadily enlarged and strengthened over the years by successive owners, among others the Bourbons, Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns, which made it one of the strongest fortresses on the European continent. Its formidable defences and strategic location caused it to become known as the ‘Gibraltar of the North’.

The Luxembourgish dynasty provided several Holy Roman Emperors, Kings of Bohemia, as well as Archbishops of Trier and Mainz. From the Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance, Luxembourg bore multiple names, depending on the author. These include Lucilinburhuc, Lutzburg, Lützelburg, Luccelemburc, Lichtburg, among others.

Luxembourg remained an independent fief (county) of the Holy Roman Empire until 1354, when the emperor Charles IV elevated it to the status of a duchy

. At that time the Luxembourg family held the Crown of Bohemia, but the duchy was usually possessed as appanage by a separate branch of the family. In 1437 the imperial Luxembourg family became extinct in the male line. At that time, the duchy and castle were held by the Bohemian princess Elisabeth of Gorlitz, Duchess of Luxembourg, a cadet granddaughter of emperor Charles IV, who however was childless, and in 1440 made a treaty with her powerful neighbour Philip III, Duke of Burgundy that Philip would administer the duchy and would inherit it after the Duchess Elisabeth’s death, which occurred in 1451 – Philip however accelerated things by expelling Elisabeth in 1443. The heirs of the main Luxembourg dynasty were not happy with the arrangement the Burgundians had made, and managed at times to wrest the possession from Burgundy: the Habsburg prince Ladislas the Posthumous, king of Bohemia and Hungary (d 1457) held the title in the 1450s, and after his death, his brother-in-law William of Thuringia (1425 to 1482) held (or at least claimed) it from 1457 to 1469. In 1467, Elisabeth, Queen of Poland, the last surviving sister of Ladislas, renounced her right in favour of Burgundy by treaty and some concessions, since the possession was next to impossible to hold against Burgundian actions. After being captured by Philip of Burgundy in 1443 and ultimately from 1467 to 1469, the duchy became one of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands. With the marriage of Mary of Burgundy in 1477 all the Netherlands provinces, including Luxembourg, came under Habsburg rule in the person of her husband Maximilian, and later their son Philip the Handsome.

Habsburg rule (1477–1815)

Coat of arms of the Counts, Dukes and Grand Dukes of Luxembourg

In these centuries the electors of Brandenburg, later kings of Prussia (Borussia), advanced their claim to the Luxembourg patrimony, being heirs-general to William of Thuringia and his wife Anna of Bohemia, the disputed dukes of Luxembourg of the 1460s – Anna was the eldest daughter of the last Luxembourg heiress. From 1609 onwards, they had a territorial base in the vicinity, the Duchy of Cleves, the starting-point of the future Prussian Rhineland. This Brandenburger claim ultimately produced some results when some districts of Luxembourg were united with Prussia in 1813.

The first Hohenzollern claimant to descend from both Anna and her younger sister Elisabeth, was John George, Elector of Brandenburg (1525–98), his maternal grandmother having been Barbara of Poland. In the late 18th century, the younger line of Orange-Nassau (the princes who held sway in the neighbouring Dutch oligarchy) also became related to the Brandenburgers.

In 1598, the then possessor, Philip II of Spain bequeathed Luxembourg and the other Low Countries to his daughter the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia and her husband Albert VII, Archduke of Austria, Albert being an heir and descendant of Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1505), queen of Poland, the youngest granddaughter of Sigismund of Luxembourg, the Holy Roman Emperor. Thus, Luxembourg returned to the heirs of the old Luxembourg dynasty – at least those of the line of Elisabeth. The Low Countries were a separate political entity during the couple’s reign. After Albert’s childless death in 1621, Luxembourg passed to his great-nephew and heir Philip IV of Spain, who through his paternal grandmother Anna of Austria, queen of Spain, Albert’s sister, was the primogenitural heir to the aforementioned queen Elisabeth of Poland.

Luxembourg was invaded by Louis XIV of France (husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV) in 1684, an action that caused alarm among France’s neighbours and resulted in the formation of the League of Augsburg in 1686. In the ensuing war France was forced to give up the duchy, which was returned to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. During this period of French rule the defences of the fortress were strengthened by the famous siege engineer Vauban. The French king’s great-grandson Louis (1710–74) was, from 1712, the first heir-general of Albert VII who additionally was a descendant of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through his mother’s Danish great-great-grandmother (he however was not the heir-general of that line, he was just heir-general of the other). Louis was the first real claimant of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, the daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia (1409–1442), the last Luxembourg empress.

Habsburg rule was confirmed in 1715, and Luxembourg was integrated into the Austrian Netherlands. Emperor Joseph and his successor Emperor Charles VI were, in addition to their descent from Spanish kings who were heirs of Albert VII, also descendants of Anna of Bohemia and William of Thuringia, having that blood through their mother (although they were heirs-general of neither line). Charles was the first ruler of Luxembourg to descend from both sisters, daughters of Elisabeth of Bohemia (1409–1442), the last Luxembourg empress.

Austrian rulers were more or less ready to exchange Luxembourg and other territories in the Low Countries. Their purpose was to round out and enlarge their power base, which in geographical terms was centered around Vienna. Thus, Bavarian candidate(s) emerged to take over the Duchy of Luxembourg, but this plan led to nothing permanent. Emperor Joseph II however made a preliminary pact to make a neighbour of Luxembourg, Charles Theodore, Elector Palatine, as Duke of Luxembourg and king in the Low Countries, in exchange of his possessions in Bavaria and Franconia. However, this scheme was aborted. Charles Theodore, who would thus have become Duke Of Luxembourg, was genealogically a junior descendant of both Anna and Elisabeth, but main heir of neither.

During the War of the First Coalition, Luxembourg was conquered and annexed by Revolutionary France, becoming part of the département of the Forêts^[2] in 1795. The annexation was formalised at Campo Formio in 1797. In 1798 Luxembourgish peasants rebelled against the French but the Rebellion was rapidly oppressed.This short Rebellion is called the Peasant’s War.

Developing independence (1815–1890)

The three Partitions of Luxembourg

Luxembourg remained more or less under French rule until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, when the Congress of Vienna gave formal autonomy to Luxembourg. The Prussians had already in 1813 managed to wrest lands from Luxembourg, to strengthen the Prussian-possessed Duchy of Julich. The Bourbons of France held a strong claim to Luxembourg, the Emperor of Austria on the other hand had controlled the duchy until the revolutionary forces had joined it to the French republic (he reportedly was not enthusiastic about regaining Luxembourg and the Low Countries, being more interested in the Balkans). The King of Prussia held the claim of the senior heiress, Anna. An additional claimant emerged, William VI, Prince of Orange who now ruled the Netherlands, and whose mother and wife were descendants of the Prussian royal family and thus also descendants of both daughters of the last Luxembourg heiress. Prussia and Orange-Nassau made the following exchange deal: Prussia received the Principality of Orange-Nassau, which included the ancestral lands of Nassau in Central Germany; the Prince of Orange in turn received Luxembourg.

Luxembourg, somewhat diminished in size (as the medieval lands had been slightly reduced by the French and Prussian heirs), was augmented in another way through the elevation to the status of grand duchy and placed under the rule of William I of the Netherlands. This was the first time that the duchy had a monarch who had no claim to inheritance of the medieval patrimony (as lineages through his mother and wife had a better entitled claimant, the Prussian king himself). However, Luxembourg’s military value to Prussia prevented it from becoming a part of the Dutch kingdom. The fortress, ancestral seat of the medieval Luxembourgers, was taken over by Prussian forces, following Napoleon’s defeat, and Luxembourg became a member of the German Confederation with Prussia responsible for its defense.

In July 1819 a contemporary from Britain visited Luxembourg: his journal offers some insights. Norwich Duff writes that “Luxembourg is considered one of the strongest fortifications in Europe, and … it appears so. It is situated in Holland (then as now used by English speakers as shorthand for the Netherlands) but by treaty is garrisoned by Prussians and 5,000 of their troops occupy it under a Prince of Hesse. The civil government is under the Dutch and the duties collected by them. The town is not very large but the streets are broader than [in] the French towns and clean ands the houses are good…..[I] got the cheapest of hot baths here at the principal house I ever had in my life: one franc.”

Much of the Luxembourgish population joined the Belgian revolution against Dutch rule. Except for the fortress and its immediate vicinity Luxembourg was considered a province of the new Belgian state from 1830 to 1839. By the Treaty of London in 1839 the status of the grand duchy was confirmed as sovereign and in personal union to the king of the Netherlands. In turn, the predominantly French speaking part of the duchy was ceded to Belgium as the province de Luxembourg. This loss left the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg a predominantly German state, although French cultural influence remained strong. The loss of Belgian markets also caused painful economic problems for the state. Recognizing this, the grand duke integrated it into the German Zollverein in 1842. Nevertheless, Luxembourg remained an underdeveloped agrarian country for most of the century. As a result of this about one in five of the inhabitants emigrated to the United States between 1841 and 1891.

Crisis of 1867

It was not until 1867 that Luxembourg’s independence was formally ratified, after a turbulent period which even included a brief time of civil unrest against plans to annex Luxembourg to Belgium, Germany or France. The crisis of 1867 almost resulted in war between France and Prussia over the status of Luxembourg. It involved competition between France and Prussia over control of Luxembourg, which had become free of German control when the German Confederation was abolished at the end of the Seven Weeks War in 1866. William III, king of the Netherlands, which still had suzerainty over Luxembourg,was willing to sell the grand duchy to France’s Napoleon III in order to retain Limbourg but backed out when Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck expressed opposition. The growing tension brought about a conference in London from March to May 1867 in which the British served as mediators between the two rivals. Bismarck manipulated public opinion, resulting in the denial of sale to France and the continued suzerainty of Holland, a member of the customs union with close ties to Prussia. The issue was resolved by the second Treaty of London which guaranteed the perpetual independence and neutrality of the state. The fortress walls were pulled down and the Prussian garrison was withdrawn.^[3]^[4] Famous visitors to Luxembourg in the 18th and 19th centuries included the German poet Goethe, the French writers Emile Zola and Victor Hugo, the composer Franz Liszt, and the English painter Joseph Mallord William Turner.

Separation and the World Wars (1890–1945)

Luxembourgh first stamps King Netherland Willem III profile mint stamp full sheet

Luxembourg remained a possession of the kings of the Netherlands until the death of William III in 1890, when the grand duchy passed to the House of Nassau-Weilburg due to a Nassau inheritance pact of 1783.

// //

First World War

World War I affected Luxembourg at a time when the nation-building process was far from complete. The small grand duchy (about 260,000 inhabitants in 1914) opted for an ambiguous policy between 1914 and 1918. With the country occupied by Germans troops, the government, led by Paul Eyschen, chose to remain neutral. This strategy had been elaborated with the approval of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg

. Although continuity prevailed on the political level, the war caused social upheaval, which laid the foundation for the first trades union in Luxembourg.

Interwar period

The end of the occupation in November 1918 squared with a time of uncertainty on the international as well as the national level. The victorious Allies disapproved of the choices made by the local élites, and some Belgian politicians even demanded the integration of the country into a greater Belgium. Within Luxembourg a strong minority asked for the instauration of a republic. In the end, the grand duchy remained a monarchy but was led by a new head of state, Charlotte. In 1921 it entered into an economic and monetary union with Belgium, the Union Économique Belgo-Luxembourgeoise (UEBL). During most of the 20th century, however, Germany remained its most important economic partner.

The introduction of universal suffrage for men and women favored the Rechtspartei (party of the Right), which played the dominant role in the government throughout the 20th century, with the exception of 1925–26 and 1974–79, when the two other important parties, the Liberal and the Social-Democratic, formed a coalition. The success of the resulting party was due partly to the support of the church—the population was more than 90 percent Catholic—and of its newspaper, the Luxemburger Wort. On the international level, the interwar period was characterized by an attempt to put Luxembourg on the map. Especially under Joseph Bech, head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, the country participated more actively in several international organizations, in order to ensure its autonomy. on December 16, 1920, Luxemburg became a member of the League of Nations. On the economic level, the 1920s and the 1930s saw the decline of the agricultural sector in favor of industry, but above all of the service sector. The proportion of the active population in this last sector rose from 18 percent in 1907 to 31 percent in 1935.

In the 1930s the internal situation deteriorated, as Luxembourgish politics were influenced by European left- and right-wing politics. The government tried to counter Communist-led unrest in the industrial areas and continued friendly policies towards Nazi Germany, which led to much criticism. The attempts to quell unrest peaked with the Maulkuerfgesetz, the “muzzle” Law, which was an attempt to outlaw the Communist Party. The law was turned down in a 1937 referendum.

Second World War

Upon the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the government of Luxemburg observed its neutrality and issued an official proclamation to that effect on September 6, 1939.^[5] On May 10, 1940, the Luxembourgish government and monarchy was swept away into exile by the German invasion of that date, although German troops actually occupied Luxembourg City during the night of 9 May. Throughout the war, Grand Duchess Charlotte broadcast via on BBC to Luxembourg to give hope to the people. The state was placed under military occupation until August 1942, when it was formally annexed by the Third Reich as part of the Gau Moselland. Luxembourgers were declared to be German citizens and 13,000 were called up for military service. 2,848 Luxembourgers eventually died fighting in the German army. Luxembourgish opposition to this annexation took the form of passive resistance at first, as in the Spéngelskrich (lit. “War of the Pins”), and by the refusal to speak German. As French was forbidden, many Luxembourgers resorted to resuscitating old Luxembourgish words, which led to a renaissance of the language. Other measures included deportation, forced labour, forced conscription and, more drastically, internment, deportation to concentration camps and execution. The latter measure was applied after a so called general strike from 1 September to 3 September 1942, which paralyzed the administration, agriculture, industry and education as response to the declaration of forced conscription by the German administration on 30 August 1942. It was violently suppressed: 21 strikers were executed and hundreds more deported to concentration camps. The then civilian administrator of Luxembourg, Gauleiter Gustav Simon had declared conscription necessary to support the German war effort. It was to remain one of the few mass strikes against the German war machinery in Western Europe.

U.S. forces again liberated most of the country in September 1944, although they were briefly forced to withdraw during the Ardennes Offensive (Battle of the Bulge) which had German troops take back most of northern Luxembourg for a few weeks. The Germans were finally expelled in January 1945. Altogether, of a pre-war population of 293,000, 5,259 Luxembourgers lost their lives during the hostilities.

Modern history (since 1945)

After World War II Luxembourg abandoned its politics of neutrality, when it became a founding member of NATO (1949) and the United Nations. It is a signatory of the Treaty of Rome, and constituted a monetary union with Belgium (Benelux Customs Union in 1948), and an economic union with Belgium and the Netherlands, the so-called BeNeLux.

On March 17, 1948 the Treaty of Brussels was signed between France, Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

It was used as an expansion to the preceding year’s defence pledge, the Dunkirk Treaty signed just between Britain and France.

The treaty was signed by the following people:

Prince Charles of Belgium
Vincent Auriol
Charlotte of Luxembourg
Queen Wilhelmina
King George VI
Paul-Henri Spaak
Georges Bidault
and a few others…

Signing_of_the_Treaty_of_Brussels_(1948)

// // Between 1945 and 2005, the economic structure of Luxembourg changed significantly. The crisis of the metallurgy sector, which began in the mid-1970s and lasted till the late 1980s, nearly pushed the country into economic recession, given the monolithic dominance of that sector. The Tripartite Coordination Committee, consisting of members of the government, management representatives, and trade union leaders, succeeded in preventing major social unrest during those years, thus creating the myth of a “Luxembourg model” characterized by social peace. Although in the early years of the 21st century Luxembourg enjoyed one of the highest GNP per capita in the world, this was mainly due to the strength of its financial standing, which gained importance at the end of the 1960s. Thirty-five years later, one-third of the tax proceeds originated from that sector. The harmonization of the tax system across Europe could, however, seriously undermine the financial situation of the grand duchy.

Luxembourg has been one of the strongest advocates of the European Union in the tradition of Robert Schuman. In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union) and in 1999 it joined the euro currency area.

Encouraged by the contacts established with the Dutch and Belgian governments in exile, Luxembourg pursued a policy of presence in international organizations. It was one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1952 and of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957. In the context of the Cold War, Luxembourg clearly opted for the West by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, thus renouncing its traditional neutrality, which had determined its international policy since the founding of the state. Engagement in European construction was rarely questioned subsequently, either by politicians or by the greater population. Despite its small proportions, Luxembourg often played an intermediary role between larger countries. This role of mediator, especially between the two large and often bellicose nations of Germany and France, was considered one of the main characteristics of national identity, allowing the Luxembourger not to have to choose between one of these two neighbors. The country also hosted a large number of European institutions such as the European Court of Justice. Luxembourg’s small size no longer seemed to be a challenge to the existence of the country, and the creation of the Banque Centrale du Luxembourg (1998) and of the University of Luxembourg (2003) was evidence of the continuing desire to become a “real” nation. The decision in 1985 to declare Lëtzebuergesch (Luxembourgian) the national language was also a step in the affirmation of the country’s independence. In fact, the linguistic situation in Luxembourg was characterized by trilinguilism: Lëtzebuergesch was the spoken vehicular language, German the written language, in which Luxembourgers were most fluent, and French the language of official letters and law.

In 1985, the country became victim to a mysterious bombing spree, which was targeted mostly at electrical masts and other installations.

In 1995 Luxembourg provided the President of the European Commission, former Prime Minister Jacques Santer who later had to resign over corruption accusations against other commission members.

The current Prime Minister, Jean-Claude Juncker follows this European tradition. On 10 September 2004, Mr Juncker became the semi-permanent President of the group of finance ministers from the 12 countries that share the euro, a role dubbed “Mr Euro”.

The present sovereign is Grand Duke Henri. Henri’s father, Jean, succeeded his mother, Charlotte, on 12 November 1964. Jean’s eldest son, Prince Henri, was appointed “Lieutenant Représentant” (Hereditary Grand Duke) on 4 March 1998. On 24 December 1999, Prime Minister Juncker announced Grand Duke Jean’s decision to abdicate the throne on 7 October 2000, in favour of Prince Henri who assumed the title and constitutional duties of Grand Duke.

On 10 July 2005, after threats of resignation by Prime Minister Juncker, the proposed European Constitution was approved by 56.52% of voters.

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The Tristan Da Cunha Collections Exhibition

Posted on January 6, 2011 | Leave a comment

Driwancybermuseum’s Blog

tarian betawi tempo dulu

WELCOME COLLECTORS FROM ALL OVER THE WORLD

SELAMAT DATANG KOLEKTOR INDONESIA DAN ASIAN

AT DR IWAN CYBERMUSEUM

DI MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.

_____________________________________________________________________

SPACE UNTUK IKLAN SPONSOR

_____________________________________________________________________

*ill 001

*ill 001 LOGO MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA DR IWAN S.*ill 001

THE FIRST INDONESIAN CYBERMUSEUM

MUSEUM DUNIA MAYA PERTAMA DI INDONESIA

DALAM PROSES UNTUK MENDAPATKAN SERTIFIKAT MURI

PENDIRI DAN PENEMU IDE

THE FOUNDER

Dr IWAN SUWANDY, MHA

BUNGA IDOLA PENEMU : BUNGA KERAJAAN MING SERUNAI( CHRYSANTHENUM)

WELCOME TO THE MAIN HALL OF FREEDOM

SELAMAT DATANG DI GEDUNG UTAMA “MERDEKA

Showcase :

The Tristan da Cunha Collections Exhibition

Dr Iwan Notes

In 1988 I had sent an aerogram to this unknow country, and almost one years I had recieved a very beautiful and rare postal used cover from this country,please look the illustration below

. Tristan da Cunha was a small island at Africa, and that time still difficult to enter rthe island because no flight ,and must waiting the good seasons by ship that was why almost one year I had recieved this letter . If Someone have the postally used cover from this country please show used because not many postal used cover found from Tristan da Cunha.

Frame One :

The Tristan da Cunha Collections

1.Postal History

2.Numismatic History

3.Travel around with Picture Collections

4.Native art

FRAME TWO :

The Tristan da Cunha Historic Collections

Tristan da Cunha


Flag	Coat of arms

Motto: Our faith is our strength

Anthem: God Save the Queen

Capital
(and largest city) Edinburgh of the Seven Seas
37°4′S 12°19′W / 37.067°S 12.317°W / -37.067; -12.317

Official language(s)

English

Demonym Tristanian

Government Part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

– Monarch Elizabeth II

– Governor Andrew Gurr

– Administrator Sean Burns

First inhabited 1810

– Dependency of Cape Colony (to UK) 1816

– Dependency of St Helena 12 January 1938

– Current constitution 1 September 2009

Population

– census 264 (2010 figures)

– Density 1.3/km²
3.4/sq mi

Currency Pound sterling (£) (GBP)

Time zone GMT (UTC+0)

Internet TLD none
(.sh or .uk can be used)

Calling code 290

Tristan da Cunha (pronounced /ˈtrɪstən də ˈkuːnə/) is a remote volcanic group of islands in the south Atlantic Ocean, and also the name of the main island of that group. It is the most remote inhabited archipelago in the world,^[1] lying 2,816 kilometres (1,750 mi) from the nearest land, South Africa, and 3,360 kilometres (2,088 mi) from South America. It is part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha ^[2] which also includes Saint Helena 2,430 kilometres (1,510 mi) to its north, and equatorial Ascension Island even farther removed, grouping the British South Atlantic islands into one far-flung centrally administered aggregate. Tristan da Cunha is said to be the “most remote inhabited location on Earth.”^[3] It has a population of 275 (2009 figures).^[4]

The territory consists of the main island of Tristan da Cunha itself and the name Cunha from the explorer Huno Cunha

, which measures about 11.27 kilometres (7.0 mi) across and has an area of 98 square kilometres (37.8 sq mi), along with the uninhabited Nightingale Islands and the wildlife reserves of Inaccessible Island and

Gough Island.

History

The islands were first sighted in 1506 by Portuguese explorer Tristão da Cunha, although rough seas prevented a landing. He named the main island after himself, Ilha de Tristão da Cunha, which was later anglicised to Tristan da Cunha Island.

The first survey of the archipelago was made by the French frigate L’Heure du Berger in 1767. Soundings were taken and a rough survey of the coastline was made. The presence of water at the large waterfall of Big Watron and in a lake on the north coast were noted, and the results of the survey were published by a Royal Navy hydrographer in 1781. The first permanent settler was Jonathan Lambert, from Salem, Massachusetts, United States, who arrived at the islands in December 1810.^[5] He declared the islands his property and named them the Islands of Refreshment. Lambert’s rule was short-lived, as he died in a boating accident in 1812.

In 1816 the United Kingdom formally annexed the islands, ruling them from the Cape Colony in South Africa. This is reported to have primarily been a measure to ensure that the French would not be able to use the islands as a base for a rescue operation to free Napoleon Bonaparte from his prison on Saint Helena. The occupation also prevented the United States from using Tristan da Cunha as a base, as they had during the War of 1812. Attempts to colonise Inaccessible Island failed.

The islands were occupied by a garrison of British Marines, and a civilian population was gradually built up. Whalers also set up on the islands as a base for operations in the Southern Atlantic. However, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, together with the gradual move from sailing ships to coal-fired steam ships, increased the isolation of the islands, as they were no longer needed as a stopping port for journeys from Europe to the Far East.

Edinburgh of the Seven Seas, Tristan da Cunha.

In 1867, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh and second son of Queen Victoria, visited the islands. The main settlement, Edinburgh of the Seven Seas, was named in honour of his visit. Lewis Carroll‘s youngest brother, the Rev. Edwin H. Dodgson, served as an Anglican missionary and school teacher in Tristan da Cunha in the 1880s. The second Duke of Edinburgh, the husband of Queen Elizabeth II, visited the islands in 1957 as part of a world tour onboard the royal yacht Britannia.

On 12 January 1938, by Letters Patent, the islands were declared a dependency of Saint Helena. Prior to this, passing ships stopped irregularly at the island for a period of mere hours.^[6]

Tristan da Cunha

Politics and government of
Tristan da Cunha

Governor
- Andrew Gurr
Administrator of Tristan da Cunha
- Sean Burns
Politics and Law
Elections and parties

During World War II, the islands were used as a top secret Royal Navy weather and radio station codenamed HMS Atlantic Isle, to monitor U Boats (which needed to surface to maintain radio contact) and German shipping movements in the South Atlantic Ocean. The only currency in use on the island at this time was the potato,^{[citation needed]} and islanders labouring to construct the station were paid in kind with naval supplies for their own use, such as wood, paint and tea. Money was introduced the following year, as was the island’s first newspaper, The Tristan Times. The first Administrator was appointed by the British government during this time.

In 1958, as part of Operation Argus, the United States Navy exploded an atomic bomb 200 kilometres (124.3 mi) high in the upper atmosphere, 115 kilometres (71.5 mi) southeast of the main island.

In 1961, a volcanic eruption forced the evacuation of the entire population to wooden huts in the disused Pendell Army Camp in Merstham, Surrey, England, before moving to a more permanent site at a former Royal Air Force station in Calshot near Southampton, England, living mainly in a road called Tristan Close. In 1962, a Royal Society expedition went to the islands to assess the damage, and reported that the settlement Edinburgh of the Seven Seas had been only marginally affected. Most families returned in 1963 led by Willie Repetto (head of the ten-person island council) and Allan Crawford (the former island welfare officer).

In 2005, the islands were given a United Kingdom post code (TDCU 1ZZ) to make it easier for the residents to order goods online.

The St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Constitution Order 2009 was made by HM the Queen and the Privy Council on 8 July and is expected to come into operation shortly thereafter. The new Constitution replaces the 1988 version and among other changes limits the Governor’s powers, includes a Bill of Rights, establishes independence of the judiciary and the public service and formally designates the Governor of St Helena as, concurrently, the Governor for Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. It also ends the “dependency” status of Ascension and Tristan da Cunha on St Helena

Recent events

On 4 December 2007 an outbreak of an acute virus-induced asthma was reported. This outbreak was compounded by Tristan’s lack of suitable medical supplies.^[7] The British coastguard in Falmouth co-ordinated international efforts to get appropriate medicines to Tristan in order to treat the virus. Tristan’s elderly population and the very young were most at risk; however, only four elderly people were hospitalised. Royal Fleet Auxiliary Vessel RFA Gold Rover upon reaching the island with the required medical supplies found no emergency and the islanders in good general health.

On February 13, 2008, fire destroyed the fishing factory and the two generators that supply power to the island. Backup generators were used to power the hospital and give power for part of the day to the rest of the island. Power was on during the day and early evening and candlelight was used the rest of the time. On March 14, 2008, new generators were installed and uninterrupted power was restored. This fire was devastating to the island because fishing is a mainstay of the economy. Royal Engineers from the British Army are working on the harbour to help maintain it as everything comes and goes by sea.

Politics and law

Executive authority is vested in the Queen, who is represented in the territory by the Governor of Saint Helena.^[8] As the Governor resides permanently in Saint Helena, an Administrator is appointed to represent the Governor in the islands. The Administrator acts as the local head of government, and takes advice from the Island Council, made up of eight elected and three appointed members. Policing in Tristan da Cunha is undertaken by one full-time police officer and three special constables. Tristan da Cunha has its own legislation, but the law of Saint Helena applies to the extent that it is not inconsistent with local law, insofar as it is suitable for local circumstances and subject to such modifications as local circumstances make necessary.

Geography

Map of Tristan da Cunha group (including Gough Island).

The name “Tristan da Cunha” is also used for the archipelago, which consists of the following islands:

the main island Tristan da Cunha and its surrounding islands
- Tristan da Cunha, the main island and largest, area: 98 square kilometres (37.8 sq mi),^[4] (37°6′44″S 12°16′56″W / 37.11222°S 12.28222°W / -37.11222; -12.28222 (Tristan da Cunha))
- Inaccessible Island, area: 14 square kilometres (5.4 sq mi)
- Nightingale Islands, area: 3.4 square kilometres (1.3 sq mi)
  - Nightingale Island, area: 3.2 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi)
  - Middle Island, area: 0.1 square kilometres (24.7 acres)
  - Stoltenhoff Island, area: 0.1 square kilometres (24.7 acres)
Gough Island (Diego Alvarez), area: 68 square kilometres (26.3 sq mi)

Inaccessible Island and the Nightingale Islands are located 35 kilometres (21.7 mi) southwest of the main island, while Gough Island is located 395 kilometres (245.4 mi) south-southeast. The main island is quite mountainous; the only flat area is the location of the capital, Edinburgh of the Seven Seas, on the northwest coast. The highest point is a volcano called Queen Mary’s Peak 2,062 metres (6,765.1 ft); it is covered by snow in winter. The climate is marine subtropical with small temperature differences between summer and winter and between day and night. The other islands of the group are uninhabited, except for the weather station on Gough Island, which has been operated by South Africa since 1956 (since 1963 at its present location at Transvaal Bay on the southeast coast), with a staff of six. Tristan da Cunha is the nesting place of Tristan Albatrosses.

Tristan da Cunha is thought to have been formed by a long-lived centre of upwelling magma called the Tristan hotspot.

Flora and Fauna

Gough Island, Tristan da Cunha.

Numerous flora and fauna occur in Tristan da Cunha. Many of these have a broad circumpolar distribution in the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans. Thus many of the species that occur in Tristan da Cunha appear as far away as New Zealand. For example, the species Nertera depressa was first collected in Tristan da Cunha,^[9] but has since been recorded in occurrence as far distant as New Zealand.^[10]

Tristan is primarily known for its wildlife. There are 13 known species of breeding seabirds on the island and two species of resident land birds. The seabirds include: Northern Rockhopper Penguin (Eudyptes moseleyi), Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross (Thalassarche chlororhynchus), Sooty Albatross (Phoebetria fusca), Atlantic petrel (Pteradroma incerta), Great-winged Petrel (Pteradroma macroptera), Soft-plumaged Petrel (Pteradroma mollis), Broad-billed Prion (Pachyptila vittata), Grey Petrel (Procellaria cinerea), Great Shearwater (Puffinus gravis), Sooty Shearwater (Puffinus griseus), Tristan Skua (Catharacta antarctica hamiltoni), Antarctic Tern (Sterna vittata tristanenis), and Brown Noddy (Anous stolidus). Tristan and Gough Islands are the only known breeding sites in the world for the Atlantic petrel.

The endemic Tristan thrush (Nesocichla eremita) or starchy occurs on all of the northern islands and each has its own subspecies, with Tristan birds being slightly smaller and duller than those on Nightingale and Inaccessible. In 1956 eight Gough moorhens (Gallinula comeri) were released at Sandy Point, on Tristan, and have subsequently colonised the island.

Economy

Main article: Outline of Tristan da Cunha

All Tristan families are farmers, owning their own stock. All land is communally owned. Livestock numbers are strictly controlled to conserve pasture and to prevent better-off families from accumulating wealth. No outsiders are allowed to buy land or settle on Tristan.^[11]

The islands’ main source of foreign income is the lobster factory and the sale of postage stamps and coins to overseas collectors. Most people have dual occupations, often working for the local government. Many inhabitants have plots of land (at the patches) on which they grow potatoes.

The 1961 volcanic eruption destroyed the Tristan da Cunha canned crayfish (spiny lobster) factory, which was rebuilt a short time later. The crayfish farmers work for the South African company Ovenstone, which has an exclusive contract to sell crayfish to the United States and Japan. Even though Tristan da Cunha is a UK overseas territory, it is not permitted direct access to European Union markets. Recently the decline in interest in Tristan crayfish in the United States has meant that the islanders have had to borrow from their reserves. The islands’ financial problems may cause delays in updating communication equipment and improving education on the island.

The fire of February 13, 2008, (see history above) has resulted in major economic disruption.

Although Tristan da Cunha is part of the same overseas territory as Saint Helena, it does not use the local Saint Helena pound. Instead, the island uses the United Kingdom issue of the pound sterling. The Bank of Saint Helena was established on Saint Helena and Ascension Island in 2004. Although this bank does not have a physical presence on Tristan da Cunha, the residents of Tristan are entitled to use its services.^[12]

Education

The school on the island is the St. Mary’s School, which has children from ages three to sixteen. The current facility, which opened in 1975, has five classrooms, a kitchen, a stage, a computer room, and a craft and science room.^[13]

Demographics

The islands have a population of 264 people.^[14] The main settlement is Edinburgh of the Seven Seas (known locally as “The Settlement”). The only religion is Christianity, with denominations of Anglican and Roman Catholic. There are instances of health problems attributed to endogamy, including asthma and glaucoma.

The current population is thought to have descended from 15 ancestors, eight males and seven females, who arrived on the island at various times between 1816 and 1908. The male founders originated from Scotland, England, The Netherlands, the USA and Italy.^[15] There is a very high incidence of asthma among the population and research by Dr. Noe Zamel of the University of Toronto has led to discoveries about the genetic nature of the disease.^[16] Three of the original settlers of the island were sufferers.^[17]

Transport

The remote location of the islands makes transport to the outside world difficult. There is no airport, so the islands can be reached only by ship. Fishing boats from South Africa regularly service the islands. The RMS Saint Helena connects the main island to St Helena and South Africa only once during its February voyage. There is no direct service to Ascension Island and the United Kingdom, without flying from Cape Town to London or a short stay on St Helena, since the March voyage of the RMS St Helena continues to Ascension and Portland.

Society

Housing in Tristan da Cunha.

On Tristan da Cunha the population of 264 people share just eight surnames: Glass (Scottish), Green (Dutch), Hagan (Irish), Lavarello (Italian, a typical Ligurian surname), Repetto (Italian, another typical Ligurian surname), Rogers (English), Swain (English), and Patterson (English).^[18] The addition of the eighth surname, Patterson, occurred recently when a Tristanian married an Englishman and returned to settle on Tristan.^[18] There are 80 families on the island.

Health care is free, but, with just one resident doctor from South Africa and five nurses, the delivery and surgery are limited and serious injury can necessitate sending signals to passing fishing vessels, so that the injured person can be transferred to Cape Town. As of late 2007 IBM and Beacon Equity Partners, co-operating with Medweb, the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the government of Tristan da Cunha on “Project Tristan”, has availed the island doctor with access to long distance tele-medical help, making it possible to send EKG and x-ray pictures to doctors in other countries for instant consultation.

Television did not arrive on the island until 2001, and the sole channel available is the British Forces Broadcasting Service from the Falkland Islands. Education is rudimentary; children leave school at fifteen, and although it is possible to take GCSEs a year later, results are poor.^[19]^[20]

Tristan da Cunha’s isolation has led to an unusual, patois-like dialect of English. Bill Bryson documents some examples of the island’s dialect in his book, The Mother Tongue.

“Recipes from Tristan da Cunha: Simple Food for all to Enjoy”, a book by Dawn Repetto published in 2010, details the unique cuisine and rich cultural heritage of Tristan da Cunha

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